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| == Overview == | | == Overview == |
| Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's Perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect. | | Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect. |
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| ==Neuroscience of Perception== | | ==Neuroscience of Perception== |
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| In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience. | | In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience. |
| The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim. | | The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim. |
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| == Misperception in communication ==
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| === '''Abstract''' ===
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| Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence are some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can foster strong relationships or reduce conflict, and allow effective teamwork.
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| === '''Misperception in communication''' ===
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| In the following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters, which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>
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| === '''Case''' ===
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| You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. The first you know and the second you don’t. Unknowing of this second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
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| What went wrong in this communication chain?
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| === '''Communication''' ===
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| Any interaction between systems through a code, this "shared" (important: it has to be shared by both communication partners) code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or semantic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>
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| === '''Perception''' ===
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| An internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things, producing a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it (the system) becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>
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| Keep in mind that the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer, so called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>
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| Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and creates a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal, for example, feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>
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| === '''The Influence of Perception on Communication''' ===
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| A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Basically the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>
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| If you are further interested in this topic I can recommend to read into associative memory. <ref name ="ref43"/>
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| Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation can be shared. This then means the code - mentioned under communication - is not shared, and thus misperception might arise.
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| The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>
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| === '''Concept and Percept''' ===
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| Let's further elaborate on this idea to understand the principle of the conceptual situation better. The inner understanding of everything is based on concepts. The moment new information is perceived, the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A through perception formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>
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| === '''The Influence of Communication on Perception''' ===
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| Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.
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| This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.
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| Thus, be careful how-to communicate. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.
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| === '''Insights''' ===
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| Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.
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| Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.
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| Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.
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| Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides, it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in your partner’s position.
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| === Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===
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| '''1: Social Issues'''
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| Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>
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| Another typical misperception which sadly is far too present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>
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| ==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
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| Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
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| Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.
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| ==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
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| Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this comes important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>
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| In most of these cases fear, and a strong belief on different opinions leads to immense danger and devastating consequences.
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| ==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
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| Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this, there are often myths which arise from conversation between individuals. It goes from questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casuation. <ref name="ref38"/>
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| A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million?”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change?
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| Anyways, to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find multiple statements about almost everything. But certified research, with terms the public understands, is rare. You could say there is a lot of information, but no certain knowledge.
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| ==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
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| In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
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| Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.
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| ==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
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| While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to diverse information.<ref name="ref28"/>
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| Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, which can lead to hurt feelings or even generate conflict.
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| Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.
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| ==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
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| This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>
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| Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>
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| Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.
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| ==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
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| Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.
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| Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.
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| ==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
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| By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.
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| Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he does not care”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
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| There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>
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| Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>
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| Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.
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| Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
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| '''
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| ==== 5. Are you listening? ====
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| '''
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| '''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
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| Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constantly moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>
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| Silence may feel uncomfortable initially, but it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.
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| But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.
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| Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.
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| ==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
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| By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.
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| Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>
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| The phrase "whole message" emphasizes to also focus on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.
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| Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.
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| === '''Conclusion''' ===
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| To summarize, misperceptions arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings, communication needs to become clear and absolute, verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.
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| The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.
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| A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.
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| How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?
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| Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose a different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright?” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!
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| ==References== | | ==References== |
| <references> | | <references> |
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| <ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), | | <ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), |
| URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref> | | URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref> |
| <ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
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| <ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
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| <ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref>
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| <ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>
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| <ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
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| <ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>
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| <ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>
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| <ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
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| <ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>
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| <ref name="ref31">Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.</ref>
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| <ref name="ref32">Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.</ref>
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| <ref name="ref33">Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.</ref>
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| <ref name="ref34">Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009</ref>
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| <ref name="ref35">Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.</ref>
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| <ref name="ref36">Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages</ref>
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| <ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
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| <ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
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| <ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
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| <ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
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| <ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>
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| <ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>
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| <ref name="ref43">Kahnemann, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow</ref>
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| </references> | | </references> |
| ==Bibliography== | | ==Bibliography== |
