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Taste perception, introduction and some minor changes
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Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.


====Perception of taste====
====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are  as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>


=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15" />


==== Philosophy of Perception and the Beholder's Share ====
==== Philosophy of Perception and the Beholder's Share ====
Work-in-Progress+
====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.


==== Epistemological Dualism ====
==== Epistemological Dualism ====


==== Direct Realism and Indirect Realism ====
==== Direct Realism and Indirect Realism ====
Work-in-Progress+


====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13" /><ref name="ref14" />
=== Broader Influences of Perception ===
=== Broader Influences of Perception ===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).


==== Feelings and Emotions ====
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
 
Work-in-Progress+
==== Perceptional Focus ====
 
==== Social Perception ====
 
==== Stages of Perception ====
 
=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
 
===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.


===Feelings and emotions===
===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.
 
==== Perceptional Focus ====
Work-in-Progress+


===Perceptional focus===
===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.
==== Social Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+
===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+


===The stages of Perception===
===The stages of Perception===
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# (Recall)
# (Recall)


===Social perception===
=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
Work-in-Progress+
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>


 
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.
==Philosophy of Perception==
 
====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.
 
===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).
 
===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>
 
 
 
===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>


===Components of perception===
===Components of perception===
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