Kant's Dialectics

[gL.edu] This article gathers contributions by Henri Wahl, developed within the context of the Conceptual clarification about "Information, Knowledge and Philosophy", under the supervisión of J.M. Díaz Nafría.

This article delves into Kant's dialectics which is contextualised and briefly referred to in the article devoted to dialectics.

Kant's Influence and the Connection to the Dialectic Tradition

Immanuel Kant is considered one of the central figures of modern philosophy. His critical works, particularly "Critique of Pure Reason," "Critique of Practical Reason," and "Critique of Judgment," mark a turning point in philosophy by laying an epistemological and metaphysical foundation that continues to be intensely discussed today. A central aspect of Kant's work is the dialectic, which plays a crucial in both epistemological and metaphysical discussions.

The dialectic, originally developed by the ancient Greeks and later refined by philosophers such as Hegel, found a decisive influence in Kant. While classical dialectic is often understood as a method of argumentation and contradiction, Kant offered a systematic examination of the limits and conditions of human cognition. In his theory of "transcendental idealism," he centers the distinction between "appearances" and "things in themselves." This distinction forms the basis for his dialectical method, which aims to analyze and resolve the contradictions and illusions that arise in human reason (ibidem).

The Transcendental Dialectic in the Critique of Pure Reason

The "Critique of Pure Reason" is Kant’s most significant work, in which he examines the possibilities and limits of human cognition. The transcendental dialectic is a central component of this work. It investigates the illusions and contradictions that emerge when human reason tries to go beyond the possible limits of experience. This form of dialectic differs from traditional dialectics in its focus on the conditions and limits of cognition, not just logical contradictions. A key part of the transcendental dialectic is the discussion of cosmological antinomies. These are contradictions that reason encounters when attempting to grasp the absolute totality of the world (ibidem). Understanding these dialectical tensions is central to Kant's epistemological project, as it helps us recognize and respect the limits and possibilities of human reason.

Antinomies of Pure Reason

The four cosmological antinomies:

1. The first antinomy (concerning the universe):

• Thesis: The world has a beginning in time and is limited in space and time.
• Antithesis: The world is infinite in space and time.

Solution: Kant shows that this contradiction arises because both arguments assume that space and time are properties of "things in themselves." In reality, they are only forms of our sensibility. Through this insight, it becomes clear that the world as an appearance is neither finite nor infinite, but these categories are relevant only to the world of phenomena.

2. The second antinomy (concerning atomism):

• Thesis: Every composite thing is made of simple parts.
• Antithesis: There are no simple parts; everything is composite.

Solution: Kant resolves this contradiction by showing that the assumption that we can directly experience the world of things in themselves is false. The idea of indivisible atoms is a regulative principle that can be useful for our experience and research, but it does not make any absolute metaphysical claim (ibidem).

3. The third antinomy (freedom vs. causality):

• Thesis: There is freedom, i.e., a spontaneous cause.
• Antithesis: There is no freedom because everything in the world follows the natural law of causality.

Solution: Kant distinguishes between the world of appearances, where all events are determined by causal laws, and the world of things in themselves, where freedom is possible. Therefore, it is possible that human action is free when viewed as a phenomenon but follows causal laws when viewed as an appearance (ibidem).

4. The fourth antinomy (necessity of a necessary being):

• Thesis: A necessary being (God) belongs to the world.

• Antithesis: There is no necessary being, neither in the world nor outside the world.

Solution: Kant resolves the contradiction between a necessary being and the idea that everything is contingent by applying the distinction between appearances and things in themselves. The idea of a necessary being cannot be realized in the world of appearances but remains a regulative principle of reason that helps us strive for an ultimate ground (ibidem).

Paralogisms of Pure Reason

In the transcendental dialectic, Kant also analyzes the paralogisms of pure reason, which uncover contradictions and delusions in rational psychology. These arise when reason attempts to go beyond the mere conditions of sensibility. Kant shows that all arguments about the soul are dialectical in nature. A transcendental paralogism is a "fallacy, where one is compelled by a transcendental ground to draw an invalid conclusion formally".

For example, reason leads humans to assume the mind as a pure, immortal substance, although this notion is not supported by experience. Kant explains that these conclusions are conditioned by the nature of reason itself and not by any underlying reality.

The World and Rational Cosmology

Kant's analysis of rational cosmology, a metaphysical discipline, reveals further dialectical conflicts. This discipline deals with arguments about the nature and constitution of the "world," understood as the sum of all appearances (objects and events in space and time). The cosmological antinomies (see above) are part of this discussion and illustrate the dialectical tensions that arise when reason goes beyond possible experience (ibidem).

The transcendental dialectic shows that each side of the arguments, both for and against the finitude or infinitude of the world, for and against the existence of free will and causality, is valid. These conflicts are resolved by Kant explaining that both arguments are incorrect and based on dialectical fallacies.

God and Rational Theology

Another essential aspect of the transcendental dialectic is Kant's critique of rational theology. The metaphysical drive and need for the unconditioned find their natural endpoint in the idea of God, an absolutely necessary and most real being. Kant reveals the dialectical errors underlying traditional arguments such as the ontological, cosmological, and physico-theological (teleological) proofs of God’s existence (ibidem).

The Three Proofs of God and Kant’s Critique:

1. Ontological Proof: This proof attempts to prove the existence of God solely through the analysis of the concept of an absolutely perfect being (ens realissimum). Kant argues that this proof fails because it treats existence as a predicate. Existence is not a real predicate that constitutes the concept of a thing.

2. Cosmological Proof: This proof argues that the existence of contingent beings implies the existence of a necessary being. Kant shows that this proof relies on the ontological proof and therefore also fails.

3. Teleological (Physico-Theological) Proof: This proof argues that the order and purposefulness of the world can only be explained by the existence of an intelligent creator. Kant argues that this proof ultimately relies on the ontological proof.

Limits of Knowledge and Transcendental Dialectic

Kant's famous thesis is that our knowledge is limited to the world of appearances (phenomena). The "thing in itself" remains inaccessible to us because our cognition is always mediated by the forms of our sensibility (Hearing, Sight etc.) and the categories of our understanding (ibidem).

In addition to the limitation of knowledge to appearances, Kant also describes the concept of "transcendental illusion." This arises when human reason tends to go beyond the possible limits of experience, leading to contradictions and fallacies. The dialectic of freedom and determinism is a prominent example of such a transcendental illusion.

Extension of Kant's Dialectic in the German Idealism

As discussed in the article Dialectics, the German Idealism, particularly in the forms developed by Schelling and Hegel, builds on Kant's transcendental dialectic and significantly expands it. While Kant largely confines the dialectic to exposing contradictions and delineating the limits of reason, these authors integrates the dialectic as a dynamic process into their philosophical systems.

Hegel saw in the dialectic a principle of becoming and unfolding that is at work in reality itself. He developed the dialectic into a process characterized by the movement of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. This process of sublation (Aufhebung as simultaneous negation and preservation) leads to a higher understanding by not only revealing but also overcoming contradictions. Hegel argues that through this dialectical process, the Absolute, or the complete state of knowledge, can be achieved.

In contrast to Kant, who holds that "things in themselves" are unknowable, Hegel asserts that the dialectical process itself leads to the recognition of absolute truth. Hegel’s philosophy contends that through the dialectic, not only are the limits of reason recognized, but absolute knowledge is also achieved. This stands in stark contrast to Kant’s skeptical stance towards the capability of human reason to grasp ultimate truth.

Schelling and Hegel's dialectics where adapted by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels into the dialectical materialism, as discussed in the article dialectics.

Contemporary Relevance of Kant’s Dialectic

The relevant aspects of the transcendental dialectic remain present in modern philosophy. They provide useful tools for critical reflection on scientific and epistemological limits. For example, we can use the transcendental dialectic to question the limits of scientific theories and examine the assumptions underlying these theories.

In modern ethics and political philosophy, Kant’s dialectical approach remains significant, particularly in the analysis of moral dilemmas and the assessment of political systems. Kant’s emphasis on the distinction between appearances and things in themselves, as well as his analysis of transcendental illusions, provides valuable insights for reflecting on what we can know and how we should apply this knowledge.

Conclusion

The dialectic is a central aspect of Immanuel Kant’s philosophy. Through the analysis of the transcendental dialectic in the Critique of Pure Reason, including the cosmological antinomies and the paralogisms of pure reason, Kant has made a significant contribution to philosophy. These investigations highlight the limits and illusions of human reason and demonstrate the necessity of critical self-reflection.

Kant’s ideas continue to be relevant for modern philosophy, offering a framework to critically analyze the depths and limits of human knowledge. The transcendental dialectic remains a powerful tool for reflecting on the fundamental structures of our cognition and has proven useful in critically challenging the limits of scientific and epistemological claims.

The further development of these ideas by philosophers like Hegel, and their application by thinkers like Marx and Engels, shows the continuing relevance and versatility of the dialectical method.

The dialectic, as developed and interpreted by Kant, remains a cornerstone of philosophical discourse and a valuable tool for examining and clarifying the mechanisms of human thought, science, and society.