Cognition
Overview
The main aim of this paper is to clarify the concept of cognition through the basic notions that have an influence in the development of it. Among other things, to achieve the aforementioned purpose, this form will consider the well-established theory of Cognitive Development from Jean Piaget, the principle cognitive processes, the perception of metacognition and cognitive science.
It is crucial to mention that the paper will be divided into seven dominant parts: introduction, cognitive processes, cognitive development, cognitive system, emotions/cognition, metacognition and the conclusion.
Introduction
Cognition is the ability to comprehend and process data from different ways like perception, experience or beliefs to convert them into knowledge. This ability encompasses a full range of cognitive processes associated with intellectual development and experience. For instance;attention, language, reasoning, learning or decision-making.
In other words, we are allowed to say that the most accepted definition of cognition is the capacity of living beings to process information based on perception, knowledge acquired through experience and our subjective characteristics that allow us to integrate all this information to evaluate and interpret the world.
The word cognition comes from the Latin "cognoscere", which means to know. Therefore, when we talk about cognitive we are usually referring to everything that belongs to/is related to knowledge and that refers to the accumulation of information that we have acquired through learning/experience.
Cognitive Processes
Cognitive processes are known as a series of chemical and electrical signals that occur in the brain that allows you to comprehend your environment and gain knowledge. Bearing this in mind, the processes will be made by the following factors: attention, thought, perception, memory and language. Due to the fact that we frequently interpret information we learn through our perceptions in conscious/unconscious ways, forming thoughts, opinions, and emotional responses, perceptions are a cognitive process. Moreover, it is crucial to mention that the procedures are mostly used to learn, communicate, analyze and meaning.
Bearing attention in mind, conscious effort is frequently required in order to concentrate on stimulation in your environment. It is also possible to unconsciously direct your attention while engaging in certain activities such as watching television or listening to music. Consequently, in order to reduce the amount of ideas that must be processed at any given time, it is necessary for cognitive scientists to choose certain salient stimuli.
The following factor will be thinking. Thoughts, also known as inner voices, refer to any cognitive process that takes place in your conscious mind but that you do not verbally or physically express. Decision making, problem-solving and deductive/inductive reasoning are part of the thoughts. The third element is perception and it relates to the five senses: sight, smell, taste, sound and touch. To finish with, we can recognize the factor of memory which indicates the ability of storing information in a short or a long term.
As it was specified before, language plays an important role in this, which also includes non-verbal communication. The non-verbal language is known as a higher cognitive process that is indispensable for the human being and it is believed that without this language, it would not have been possible to reach to the verbal communication. (Corrales Navarro, 2011, p.46). So, we can clearly see that understanding the rules of nonverbal language is vital not only for social interaction but also to motivate and convince the masses to act in a certain way. Taking this into account, there is no chance to have affective relationships without knowing how to react, read and interact with others on a nonverbal level.
A number of general pieces of evidence are available that suggest that at least some nonverbal communication occurs automatically, as a matter of fact. The first thing to note is that there are several demands on the reasonably limited conscious cognitive resources that are required to process all nonverbal communication in a controlled manner, even though the resources are reasonably limited.
Secondly, verbal communication is a conscious process, which is largely responsible for its effectiveness. Humans tend to focus their attention on what is said and not on nonverbal cues that go unspoken. Afterwards, it is believed that some nonverbal signals can not be managed easily so that when efforts to control those conducts, they usually are not prosperous. Finally, despite claims made by some researchers that nonverbal communication is intentional and strategic, recent research suggests that even strategic behaviors can happen automatically.
Last but not least it is vital to point out that there are factors that can alter the path of the cognition such as stress, family, social environment, economical status or learning opportunities.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is a theory constructed by Jean Piaget and it is based on how an organism adapts to its environment. The adaptation is called equilibration due to the fact that the phase is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and environment.
Piaget identified four types of stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.
| Sensorimotor stage
(infancy) |
|
| Pre-operational stage
(Toddler and early childhood) |
|
| Concrete operational stage
(Elementary and early adolescence) |
|
| Formal operational stage
(Adolescence and adulthood) |
|
Despite the fact that this theory is among the most widely known theories of cognition, it has received some ethical criticism. For instance, some studies have claimed that many cognitive capabilities among infants emerge earlier than in Piaget's theory (Bauer, Larkina, & Deocampo, 2011). Not only that but also it has been found that the ability of formal operational thinking among humans has changed over time (Shaffer et al., 2010).
Much of this criticism has come from researchers following a Vygtoskian approach. However, from a recent sociocultural perspective, we attribute these similarities to a common failure to recognize the unity of cognition and social context. Piaget considered himself an epistemologist rather than a developmental psychologist, using child development research to investigate questions of the origin and nature of scientific knowledge (Smith, 1995). Vygotsky, on the other hand, was interested in studying how people can become members of historically advanced cultural communities.
It is interesting to note that Piaget's and Vygotsky's interests are similar in the sense that for both of them, advanced development has only one direction, and the goal of this direction is predictable and given. Using the term advanced development, they have demonstrated that it has been shaped by the values and practices of a particular community.
Nevertheless, Piaget's methods of research work have been subjected to another judgment or critical analysis. It is believed that the main origin of his theory is based on the observation of his own children so that we can conclude that the subjects of his research were all well-educated. On top of that, it is stated that Piaget rarely explained how his participants were selected, which poses a problem for his research methodology.
Furthermore, there is very little statistical detail regarding how he reached his conclusions in most of his work. This links to the doubt of the operational definitions that researchers must have.
Apart from that, it is important to note that Piaget´s work was the first study generating interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the future of education and developmental psychology. In the light of the above, his work pioneered the development of what is now known as the clinical method.
Emotions and Cognition
There is no doubt that emotions play a significant role in how we think, decide, behave, and develop as human beings. It is crucial to mention that cognition is stereotyped as being associated with rationality and that is why it is believed that emotions are more irrational than cognition.
Bearing this in mind, it is true that there has been a historical division between cognition and emotion but some research has increasingly supported an intimate relationship between them (Pessoa, 2008).
As a result, the current scene exhibits two major ways of approaching the phenomenon, which, although presented as incompatible, both seek to account for what emotions are and how they work. The first one is called the theory of sensation. This theory was submitted in an independent way by William James (1884) and Carl G.Lange (1885) and it is related to the usual way in which emotions were conceived at that time was erroneous.
This traditional/standard way conceived emotion as the result of a perception, and the cause of the physical expression. That is, the perception of an object or event awakened an emotional state, which in turn, generated a manifestation through body changes.
The specified research must take into account the following points: the centrality of the sensation and the immediacy of the emotion. On the one hand, the role that sensation plays in this scheme is key due to the fact that emotion is nothing but the sensation caused directly by the physiological response set off after the perception of the object.
On the other hand, according to the immediacy, emotions, defined as the sensation of bodily changes, are not constrained by any kind of cognitive mediator.
The second theory is called the rationality of emotions which has been done by Robert C. Salomon. Salomon's strongest thesis is that emotions are normative and often moral judgments so he believed that to have an emotion is to make a normative judgment about the present situation, but the object of an emotion cannot simply be a fact.
In other words, to have an emotion is to make a normative judgment about the present situation, but the object of an emotion cannot simply be a fact: the emotional object can only be fully characterized as the object of anger. This means that an event or the perception of an event is not enough to produce an emotion: it necessarily involves a personal evaluation of the significance of the incident.
As a result of these theories we can conclude that emotions can be involuntary. An unconscious emotion is for some authors like a squared circle, that is, something conceptually impossible (Clore, 1994). But this is absolutely independent of how those emotional episodes came to take place. That is to say, the processes that trigger or underlie the emotional episodes are processes that could be unconscious.
To sum up, a certain kind of thinking or cognition is a necessary precondition for all emotions. In particular, Lazarus (1982) postulates that it is the cognitive evaluation that links and mediates between subjects and the environment, eliciting particular emotions as a result of the subject's specific evaluations of his or her relationship with the environment by virtue of his or her well-being. The general thesis guiding his position is that cognition and emotion are usually fused in nature.
Metacognition
Metacognition refers to higher order thinking that involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. It is believed that the theoretical elaboration of metacognition constitutes a major breakthrough in recents of cognitive research.
Moreover, metacognition serves to different functions and in order to understand the meaning of it the austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein point out the following quote: "Think of the tools in a tool-box: there is a hammer, pliers, a saw, a screw-driver, a rule, a glue-pot, glue, nails and screw. The functions of words are as diverse as the functions of the objects“. Taking this into account, we can identify that metacognition consists in two components: knowledge and regulation. Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge about oneself as a learner and the factors that might impact performance. Nonetheless, metacognitive regulation involves monitoring one's cognitive functioning and includes planning activities, being aware of comprehension, and performing tasks effectively.
According to several researchers, metacognitive abilities improve with aging, and development abilities proceed as follows: cognitive knowledge appears first, as children as young as six can reflect upon the accuracy of their cognition, and these skills are consolidated by the age of 8-10.
After that, comes the ability to regulate cognition. In this transaction, dramatic improvements in monitoring and evaluation appearing between 10-14 years old are slower to develop than the adult metacognition. The final step in the process is the construction of metacognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation.
The most common paradigm for testing metacognitive abilities involves presenting subjects with a stimulus that they must categorize in one or two ways. They are also provided with the option of opting out of the test, with correct categorization resulting in the highest reward, opting out resulting in a lower reward, and incorrect categorization resulting in no reward.
Now that we are familiar with what metacognition is, it is crucial to mention that it has some advantages in the area of problem solving, as well. For instance: identifying and defining the problem, mentally representing the problem, planning how to proceed and evaluating what you know about your focuses.
To sum up, in general terms, metacognition refers to the ability to monitor one's own cognitive states, which are manifested in one's judgements or feelings regarding the level of certainty or confidence in one's own judgments and feelings (J.D. Smith 2009; Beran et al. 2012; Proust 2013; Fleming & Frith 2014).
Cognitive System
The concept of a cognitive system refers to the process of designing, constructing, and researching computational artifacts which embody the full range of human intelligence as accomplished by human beings. K. Krippendorf describes the cognitive system as the following: “ A construct, map or maze involving a collection of interconnected items of knowledge or beliefs held by an individual about itself, or about its physical or social environment including the cognitive system of others” (1986, p. 12).
There are two features in the cognitive system: On the one hand, high-level cognition and on the other hand structured representations. Taking high-level cognition into account, we can clearly say that humans are able to understand and generate language, solve problems, design and use complex artifacts, reason about others' mental states or even think about their own thinking.
Afterwards, in the phenomenon of structured representations, computers and humans are known as general symbol manipulators that are able to encode information, create/modify and interpret the relational context or incorporate numbers only as annotations on these structures.
The cognitive system, in this sense, can be viewed as a system that perceives its environment, learns from its experiences, anticipates the outcome of events, acts to reach its goals, and, as circumstances change, adapts to it in order to meet its objectives.
Conclusion
Cognition is the state and process involved in knowing which in its completeness include different kinds of processes as language or thinking. To put it in another way, cognition is a state or experience of knowing that can be distinguished from a feeling.
Philosophers have debated the nature of cognition and the connection between knowing since the beginning of time. For instance, the theory about cognitive development by Piaget which involves distinct stages of an intellectual growth of a human being.
So, to sum up, we can clearly mention that cognition plays a significant role in learning, problem solving and in self-monitoring. A better understanding of cognition, its development, and how it relates to emotions and metacognition is crucial to understanding human behavior and thought in general.
References
Babakr, Zana Hasan, Mohamedamin, Pakstan, and Kakamad, Karwan. (2019), Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory: Critical Review. Education Quarterly Reviews, Vol.2, No.3, 517-524
Bertalanffy Center for the Study of Systems Science (2020). Cognitive Process. In Charles François (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics. From: www.systemspedia.org/.
Bertalanffy Center for the Study of Systems Science (2020).Cognition. In Charles François (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics. From www.systemspedia.org/.
Bertalanffy Center for the Study of Systems Science (2020).Cognitive System. In Charles François, International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics From www.systemspedia.org/.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia (2014/04/21). Cognition. Encyclopedia Britannica. From: https://www.britannica.com/topic/cognition-thought-process.
Cohen, R.A. (2014). Cognitive Psychology of Attention: Foundations. The Neuropsychology of Attention. Springer, Boston. From: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-72639-7_3.
Cognición y Ciencia Cognitiva: ¿Qué es la cognición? Significado y definición. Cognifit. From: Cognición y Ciencia Cognitiva - La importancia de la cognición (cognifit.com)
Corrales Navarro, E. (2013). El lenguaje no verbal: un proceso cognitivo superior indispensable para el ser humano. Revista Comunicación, 20 (2011), 46–51. From: https://doi.org/10.18845/rc.v20i1.
Cong-Lem, N. Emotion and its relation to cognition from Vygotsky’s perspective. Eur J Psychol Educ 38, 865–880 (2023). From: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-022-00624-x
Cherry, K. (2019, August 2). Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory. VeryWellMind. https://www.verywellmind.com/support-and-criticism-of-piagets-stage-theory-2795460
Davidson, J. E., Deuser, R., & Sternberg, R. J. (1994). The role of metacognition in problem solving. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 207–226). The MIT Press. From: The role of metacognition in problem solving. (apa.org)
Dutta, J. (n.d.). What Are the Factors Affecting Cognitive Development of Children? Preserve Articles. https://www.preservearticles.com/psychology/what-are-the-factors-affecting-cognitive-development-of-children/13093
Huitt, W. & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA; Valdosta State University. From http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsy/piaget.html.
Langley, P. (2012). The cognitive systems paradigm. Advances in Cognitive Systems, 1(1), 3-13.
L. Lakin, J. (2006). Automatic Cognitive Processes and Nonverbal Communication (pp. 59-65). Drew University.
Vernon, D. (2014). Cognitive System. In: Ikeuchi, K. (eds) Computer Vision. Springer, Boston, MA. From: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-31439-6_82
Matthews, Gareth and Amy Mullin, "The Philosophy of Childhood", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), From: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/childhood/.
Martinez, M. E. (2006). What is Metacognition? Phi Delta Kappan, 87(9), 696–699. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170608700916
Melamed, Andrea F.. (2016). Las teorías de las emociones y su relación con la cognición: Un análisis desde la filosofía de la mente. Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, (49), 13-38. Recuperado el 06 de junio de 2023. From http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-81042016000100001&lng=es&tlng=es.
Matusov, E., & Hayes, R. (2000, July 28). Sociocultural critique of Piaget and Vygotsky. ScienceDirect. From: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0732118X0000009X#preview-section-introduction
Smith, Joel. "Self-Consciousness". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta. From: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/self-consciousness/.
What Are Cognitive Processes? : Definition, Types and Uses. (2023, February 4). Indeed.From:https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/cognitive-processes.