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{{Head0 JTP|Authors=[[User:Konstantin Litera]], [[User:HenriWahl]]}} | {{Head0 JTP|Authors=[[User:Konstantin Litera]], [[User:HenriWahl]]}} | ||
The term “'''dialectic'''” originates from the (ancient) Greek language. In its literal meaning, it means “art of conversation” or “art of dialog”. In ancient greek, dialectic was used as a rhetorical methodology to find the truth on topics of nature or society by using the dialog form and using the opposite of the treated object. According to Aristoteles, Zeno of Elea was the first dialectician.<ref> | The term “'''dialectic'''” originates from the (ancient) Greek language. In its literal meaning, it means “art of conversation” or “art of dialog”. In ancient greek, dialectic was used as a rhetorical methodology to find the truth on topics of nature or society by using the dialog form and using the opposite of the treated object. According to Aristoteles, Zeno of Elea was the first dialectician.<ref>Dialectic (2024, June 2). ''Wiktionary''. Retrieved 26/07/2024 from https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=dialectic&oldid=79642563.</ref> | ||
In the eighteen century the term gained a further dimension of meaning when Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel used it in “The Phenomenology of Spirit” as a methodology to constitute knowledge. Marx and Engels replaced Hegel’s idealistic approach with historian materialism in their works. | In the eighteen century the term gained a further dimension of meaning when Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel used it in “The Phenomenology of Spirit” as a methodology to constitute knowledge. Marx and Engels replaced Hegel’s idealistic approach with historian materialism in their works. | ||
== Dialectics in ancient times == | == Dialectics in ancient times == | ||
This section covers the dialectic in the ancient times. In ancient times, dialectic was mainly | This section covers the dialectic in the ancient times. In ancient times, dialectic was mainly seen as a rhetorical method to discover the truth in conversation, unlike in modernity, where especially Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel considered dialectic as systematic method to uncover truth completely. | ||
seen as a rhetorical method to discover the truth in conversation, unlike in modernity, where especially Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel considered dialectic as systematic method to uncover truth completely. | |||
=== Plato and Socrates === | === Plato and Socrates === | ||
Even though dialectic is considered more of a Platonic than a Socratic idea, Plato attributes the method to Socrates in several dialogs (Republic, Phaedrus, Sophist and Statesman). Methodologically, the concept revolves around the idea of acquiring and testing knowledge in the form of questions and answers in a dialogue. In Plato’s transcripts of Socrates speeches, the idea of dialectic appears for the first time in the history of mankind. Here is a an abstracts of one speech, which gives a general idea of how the dialectic method was understood in ancient Greek and also divides the dialectic concept from the rhetoric of the sophists.<blockquote>''—Suppose someone should ask us about the children sitting together learning their letters: when one of them is asked of what letters some word or other is composed, do we ever say that the inquiry is more for the sake of the one problem set before him or for the sake of his becoming a better speller in all such cases?—Clearly for the sake of his becoming a better speller in all such cases.—Now again whatabout our inquiry about the statesman? Is it posed more for the sake of that thing itself [the statesman] or for the sake of our becoming more dialectical about everything? This too is clear, that it’s for the sake of our becoming more dialectical about everything.'' (Statesman 285c–d) <ref>Gill, Mary-Louise (2020). Method and Metaphysics in Plato’s Sophist and Statesman. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/plato-sophstate/.</ref></blockquote> | Even though dialectic is considered more of a Platonic than a Socratic idea, Plato attributes the method to Socrates in several dialogs (Republic, Phaedrus, Sophist and Statesman). Methodologically, the concept revolves around the idea of acquiring and testing knowledge in the form of questions and answers in a dialogue. In Plato’s transcripts of Socrates speeches, the idea of dialectic appears for the first time in the history of mankind. Here is a an abstracts of one speech, which gives a general idea of how the dialectic method was understood in ancient Greek and also divides the dialectic concept from the rhetoric of the sophists.<blockquote>''—Suppose someone should ask us about the children sitting together learning their letters: when one of them is asked of what letters some word or other is composed, do we ever say that the inquiry is more for the sake of the one problem set before him or for the sake of his becoming a better speller in all such cases?—Clearly for the sake of his becoming a better speller in all such cases.—Now again whatabout our inquiry about the statesman? Is it posed more for the sake of that thing itself [the statesman] or for the sake of our becoming more dialectical about everything? This too is clear, that it’s for the sake of our becoming more dialectical about everything.'' (Statesman 285c–d) <ref>Gill, Mary-Louise (2020). Method and Metaphysics in Plato’s Sophist and Statesman. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/plato-sophstate/.</ref></blockquote> | ||
=== Aristotle === | === Aristotle === | ||
Aristotle, who was Plato's student, took the dialectical concept one step further in his “Organon/Tropics” (Greek for Tools). Although his approaches on logic are considered hard to understand and partly wrong, he develops in his works, the first systematic concept of dialectics by developing an argument guide. Aristoteles sees usability of dialectics in three forms: (i) training for the mind, (ii) public discussions, (iii) discussing philosophical questions.<ref>Rapp, Christof | Aristotle, who was Plato's student, took the dialectical concept one step further in his “Organon/Tropics” (Greek for Tools). Although his approaches on logic are considered hard to understand and partly wrong, he develops in his works, the first systematic concept of dialectics by developing an argument guide. Aristoteles sees usability of dialectics in three forms: (i) training for the mind, (ii) public discussions, (iii) discussing philosophical questions.<ref>Rapp, Christof (2022). Aristotle’s Rhetoric. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/.</ref> | ||
He differs between scientific and dialectic premises. According to him, scientific premises are true and first propositions, while dialectic propositions are recognized opinions. As in other cases, we must set out the appearances (''phainomena'') and run through all the puzzles regarding them. In this way we must prove the credible opinions (''endoxa'') about these sorts of experiences—ideally, all the credible opinions, but if not all, then most of them, those which are the most important ones. For if the objections are answered and the credible opinions remain, we shall have an adequate proof (EN 1145b2–7). | He differs between scientific and dialectic premises. According to him, scientific premises are true and first propositions, while dialectic propositions are recognized opinions. As in other cases, we must set out the appearances (''phainomena'') and run through all the puzzles regarding them. In this way we must prove the credible opinions (''endoxa'') about these sorts of experiences—ideally, all the credible opinions, but if not all, then most of them, those which are the most important ones. For if the objections are answered and the credible opinions remain, we shall have an adequate proof (EN 1145b2–7). | ||
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=== Dialectical School === | === Dialectical School === | ||
The dialectical School or ''Megaric school'' was a group of early Hellenistic philosophers linked to the Socratic tradition of Eubulides of Miletus and by their focus on logical paradoxes, propositional logic and dialectics. This school, among whom Diodorus Cronus and Philo were prominent, made relevant contributions to logics, for instance, the Master-Argument, theories of conditionals and modal logic.<ref>Bobzien, Susanne (2019). Dialectical School. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/dialectical-school/.</ref> | The dialectical School or ''Megaric school'' was a group of early Hellenistic philosophers linked to the Socratic tradition of Eubulides of Miletus and by their focus on logical paradoxes, propositional logic and dialectics. This school, among whom Diodorus Cronus and Philo were prominent, made relevant contributions to logics, for instance, the Master-Argument, theories of conditionals and modal logic.<ref>Bobzien, Susanne (2019). Dialectical School. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/dialectical-school/.</ref> | ||
=== Medieval Ages === | === Medieval Ages === | ||
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It is difficult to integrate the works on dialectics of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling because he is partly considered as teacher of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, on the other hand, he survived his student on several years and also changed his direction on dialectics over the years. The following shows the different states on dialects over time. | It is difficult to integrate the works on dialectics of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling because he is partly considered as teacher of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, on the other hand, he survived his student on several years and also changed his direction on dialectics over the years. The following shows the different states on dialects over time. | ||
''Early works (Naturphilosophie)'': In his early works, (e.g. Münchner Vorlesung) Schelling divides the human cognition in subjective and objective thinking. This division is also transmitted on nature. While objective nature (''natura naturata''), can be measured empirical, the subjective nature (''natura naturans'') is productivity. Schelling develops a model of those two opposites, which rescind each other in an eternal dynamical process. <ref>Saitya Brata | ''Early works (Naturphilosophie)'': In his early works, (e.g. Münchner Vorlesung) Schelling divides the human cognition in subjective and objective thinking. This division is also transmitted on nature. While objective nature (''natura naturata''), can be measured empirical, the subjective nature (''natura naturans'') is productivity. Schelling develops a model of those two opposites, which rescind each other in an eternal dynamical process. <ref>Saitya Brata (s.d.). Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. ''The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (22/06/26) Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/schellin/#SH2a</ref> | ||
''Philosophy and Religion'': In Philosophy and Religion, Schelling investigates the difference between eternal absoluteness and unlasting things. The eternal absoluteness is representing God, while the unlasting things are all those which are not-god-like”. Those two poles are in an everlasting conflict. <ref>Bowie, Andrew (2020). Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Summer 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schelling/#AgesWorl.</ref> | ''Philosophy and Religion'': In Philosophy and Religion, Schelling investigates the difference between eternal absoluteness and unlasting things. The eternal absoluteness is representing God, while the unlasting things are all those which are not-god-like”. Those two poles are in an everlasting conflict. <ref>Bowie, Andrew (2020). Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Summer 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schelling/#AgesWorl.</ref> | ||