Information ethics

[gL.edu] This article gathers contributions being developed by Vedat Selimi, within the context of the Conceptual clarification about "Information, Knowledge and Philosophy", under the supervisión of J.M. Díaz Nafría.

Teacher's Comments: This article requires the corrections indicated below: A contributor, Max Theriot, added to this topic a new article under the epigraph "Ethics of Information", instead of improving the current article. Since no well articulated whole has been built, the content has been moved to a draft page: Draft:Ethics of Information. However, it would be beneficial to the current article to bring the clarification regarding the sharing and cretining of information (incl. misinformation and disinformation) contained in Theriot's article.

This article paper delves into the origins, development, and principles of information ethics, tracing back to the Greek and Latin roots of the words "ethics" and "information". Information ethics emerges as a pivotal field within applied ethics, addressing the moral implications arising from the pervasive digitalization and networking of contemporary society. Central to this discourse are the themes of privacy, identity, autonomy, and responsibility, viewed through various ethical lenses such as deontological, consequentialist, virtue, and discourse ethics.

The historical genesis of information ethics, initiated by Robert Hauptman and Rafael Capurro in the late 1980s, is examined alongside its evolution to encompass computer science and digital communication technology. Luciano Floridi’s contributions are highlighted, particularly his conceptualization of the "infosphere" and the "fourth revolution," which underscores the profound ethical questions introduced by the omnipresence of information and data in modern life.

The field of information ethics is delineated showing the diverse forms it adopts—descriptive, analytical, normative, emancipatory, and educational—each contributing to a comprehensive understanding and responsible handling of information. Practical approaches, including case studies, stakeholder analysis, principle-based judgment, and ethics audits, are also described showing how information ethics is applied to real-world scenarios. The importance of understanding both technical and social systems in information ethics is stressed, covering aspects such as system transparency, justice, security, and responsibility.

Finally relevant topics of information ethics are briefly discussed: information as a commodity, addressing its equitable distribution and ethical considerations within political philosophy frameworks; ethics in artificial intelligence, highlighting challenges in algorithm design, fairness, transparency, explainability, and accountability. The conclusion underscores the significance of information ethics in navigating the moral landscapes of the modern information society, advocating for a balanced and reflective approach to the ethical use of information, data, and technologies.

Introduction

Information ethics is a dynamic field within applied ethics that deals with ethical issues in the course of the increasing digitalization and networking of our society. Like other areas of ethics, such as bioethics or environmental ethics, information ethics addresses specific areas of life and action and examines the moral dimensions of these areas.

Word origin

The word ethics comes from the Greek ἠθική (ἐπιστήμη) ēthikē (epistēmē) "moral (understanding)", from ἦθος ēthos "character, sense" (against ἔθος: habit, custom, custom). The word information comes from the Latin noun informatio which literally means "formation, education acquired through teaching" (in one of its important meanings), a noun which in turn is based on the verb informare "to form, to give a shape". Nowadays, the word information is one of the most important linguistic internationalisms, which is why the pictogram i has become established as a sign of a place where certain information can be obtained. In the article on information, both the antique and modern notions are further discussed.

Historical development of information ethics

The concept of information ethics was introduced by Robert Hauptman and Rafael Capurro in the late 1980s. In their work, Hauptman and Capurro addressed ethical challenges in the field of library science, such as censorship, freedom of information and copyright. Since then, information ethics has evolved to include areas of computer science, digital communication technology, information society and information economy.

Luciano Floridi, Professor of Philosophy and Ethics of Information at the University of Oxford, has criticised the inconsistency of the term information ethics, as it is interpreted differently depending on the field of research. He emphasises that the development of information and communication technologies has had a decisive influence on information ethics and has led to the shaping of the so-called information society.

The fourth revolution and the infosphere

Luciano Floridi describes the fourth revolution as the informational revolution, which follows the Copernican, Darwinian and Freudian revolutions. These changes have fundamentally altered our understanding of the position of humans in the universe, biological evolution and human psychology. The fourth revolution is transforming our view of the human being through the ubiquitous role of information and data in our lives.

Floridi argues that this revolution raises profound ethical questions that redefine our understanding of identity, privacy, autonomy and responsibility. He describes this era as one in which information processing is central to our self-understanding and social interactions. These new realities require ethical frameworks to adequately address both opportunities and risks.

Floridi also coined the term "infosphere", which describes an expanded information world in which every object is considered an information object. This infosphere is extended by digital technologies and assets and corresponds to reality whose ontological understanding is brand-new, including the entire realm of human and technological existence. It can be interpreted in a platonic perspective in which it is the information and not the specific instantiation of an object from a prototype that matters.

Ethics in the information age

In a similar vein, Díaz-Nafría argues that at the dawn of the information age, social, political and economic relations have substantially changed due to the increasing role of information. Information ethics must therefore deal with new dynamic relationships and their ethical implications. This includes the need to reformulate traditional moral concepts and to understand what information really is and how it can be understood in reality, similar as energy was understood in the industrial revolution as a means to seize its most valuable asset.

This reflection leads us to questions of social dynamics and the role of information in social life. The general understanding of energy in the XIXth century let unified the variety of its manifestations as what enables change. And it was the capacity to introduce changes in the social interaction what was exhibited in the industrial revolution. A parallel understanding of information as what enables the selection of changes in a system and consequently drives the energy for transformations in our society, offers a new perspective to manage information with responsibility, to develop a new morality in the facing of our current problems and challenges. As Díaz-Nafría argues, our understanding of information must be interdisciplinary in order to recognise and exploit the new spaces of possibilities opened up by information technology.

The field of information ethics

Definition and principles of information ethics

Information ethics is at the center of moral reflection on the handling and processing of information in the modern information society. It examines how people and institutions that create, process and disseminate information should behave in moral terms. Central themes of information ethics are questions of privacy, identity, autonomy and responsibility in the digital age. Information ethics can be divided into two areas: descriptive and normative information ethics. While descriptive information ethics looks at the historical development and current state of information ethics, normative information ethics formulates evaluation standards for ethical behavior in dealing with information.

Theoretical approaches and frameworks

The main approaches in ethics offer different perspectives on ethical issues concerning information, which enable us to distinguish among the following main frameworks of information ethics:

• Deontological ethics: this approach focuses on compliance with rules and obligations when dealing with information. It deals with the principles and regulations that must be observed when processing information.
• Consequentialist ethics: The focus here is on the consequences of actions. Decisions in the area of information ethics are therefore evaluated based on their potential results and effects.
• Virtue ethics: This approach examines which character traits and virtues information processors should possess in order to act morally correctly.
• Discourse ethics: According to Jürgen Habermas' approach, morality is determined by communicative rationality in discourse. In information ethics, this can mean that ethical norms are determined through the equal dialog of all those involved.

Functions and goals: forms of information ethics

Before discussing specific and particular aspects of information ethics in more detail, it is important to first explain its central functions and objectives. A distinction can be made between descriptive, analytical, normative, emancipatory and educational forms of information ethics.

(i) Descriptive information ethics: historical and contemporary considerations

Descriptive information ethics diachronically examines the development and history of moral behaviour in the information sector across different eras. It analyses the values that play a role in the production, storage, processing, distribution and use of information. It addresses questions such as: Who had access to what information, and who did not? Who had the necessary prerequisites for using information resources, such as literacy?

(ii) Analytical information ethics: Critical examination

Analytical information ethics goes one step further by critically evaluating the findings of the diachronic-descriptive approaches. The aim is to analyse the effects of existing structures and power relations on information behaviour. It analyses how information hierarchies contributed to securing political, religious and economic power, for example through state censorship, educational restrictions and targeted disinformation.

(iii) Normative information ethics: defining basic values

Normative information ethics is concerned with the desirable ways of dealing with modern and traditional information technologies. It emphasises core values such as freedom of expression and information, information justice, data protection, privacy and informational self-determination. Based on these fundamental values, it develops principles that are incorporated into ethical codes, professional ethics and guidelines.

(iv) Emancipatory information ethics: promoting information justice

Emancipatory information ethics places information justice as a key value and analyses existing inequalities. It identifies information asymmetries and develops strategies to reduce them. The focus is particularly on the digital divide at a global level, which is caused by a lack of technical resources and insufficient information literacy. The causes of these divisions within society are also analysed and possible solutions identified.

(v) Enlightening information ethics: debunking information myths and disinformation

The aim of enlightening information ethics is to debunk information myths and reveal their manipulative intentions. Examples include myths such as "the Internet contains the world's knowledge" or "search engines search the entire Internet". Combating targeted disinformation also plays an important role.

The educational aim of information ethics is to raise awareness of the problem among the target audience and to show that ethical reflection is crucial for resolving conflicts in the information sector. According to Capurro, four goals are important for information ethics education: (i) basic knowledge of ethical concepts and theories, (ii) acceptance of responsibility for individual and collective actions, (iii) independent recognition and problem-solving of ethical conflicts and (iv) appreciation of the diversity of information and media cultures.

Practical approaches and methods of information ethics

The application of information ethics principles in practice requires a systematic and methodical approach. Here are some important methods and approaches:

• Case studies and scenario analyses: specific cases and hypothetical scenarios can be analysed to understand moral dilemmas and their possible solutions.
• Stakeholder analysis: Identification and consideration of all relevant actors and their perspectives and interests.
• Judgement by principles: Application of the above ethical principles to specific situations or technologies to develop ethical guidelines.
• Ethics audits: Systematic review and evaluation of processes and practices with regard to their ethical acceptability.

Interdisciplinary dialogue and participatory processes

Close dialogue between computer scientists, philosophers, legal scholars, sociologists and other relevant disciplines is necessary in order to develop comprehensive solutions. In addition, the involvement of citizens and those affected is essential in order to take their views and concerns directly into account.

The concept of the system in information ethics

A central aspect of information ethics is the understanding and consideration of systems. Systems, both technical and social, play an essential role in the information age. Technical systems, such as computer systems, networks and algorithms, are the basis for the processing and dissemination of information. Social systems, on the other hand, comprise the social structures and interactions that are influenced by the flow of information.

Information ethics issues must therefore consider both the technical and social dimensions of these systems. This includes, among other things:

• System transparency: technical systems must be designed transparently so that their functioning and decision-making can be understood. This makes it possible to recognise and address ethical concerns such as discrimination by algorithms at an early stage.
• System justice: Access to and use of information systems should be fair and equally distributed. The digital divide must be overcome in order to offer equal opportunities to all people, regardless of their social or economic status.
• System security and data protection: The security of technical systems and the protection of personal data are key aspects of information ethics. Measures must be developed and implemented to prevent data misuse and cybercrime.
• System responsibility: Responsibility in the event of malfunctions or misuse of technical systems must be clearly regulated. This applies not only to the developers and operators of the systems, but also to the political and regulatory framework.

Floridi describes this necessity as part of a broader ethical reflection that is of particular importance in the age of the fourth revolution. The infosphere, as an all-encompassing system of information and information flow, requires us to proactively address both the technical and ethical challenges.

Topics of information ethics

Information as goods

When discussing the design and use of information and communication technology (ICT) on the basis of political philosophy, one must first consider how information can be meaningfully considered as goods. Much of the debate about justice in political philosophy centres on the question of how scarce goods can be distributed in such a way that the rights and freedoms of individuals are not restricted and at the same time economic conflicts are resolved fairly.

Some examples of the implementation of this principle can be found in the free education system in Germany and in public libraries, which make their resources –in this case books and the knowledge they contain– freely available and thus accessible to all.

John Locke argued that goods lose their value if they are hoarded and not used. Therefore, according to Locke, if someone possesses information and denies others the use of this information without using it themselves, this person is behaving morally wrong.

Philosophers such as John Rawls can use this argument to claim that an unjust distribution of information violates the principle of equality and does not serve the benefit of all members of a society, i.e. contradicts the so-called difference principle. In order to correct an unfair distribution, measures must be taken to ensure a redistribution of information to disadvantaged members of society. However our current data-driven society is far from offering equality in the infosphere.

Freedom of information as a central topic of information ethics

Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and a prerequisite for the free formation of opinion, similar to freedom of expression. It is enshrined in the UN Declaration of Human Rights and also in the German Basic Law, where citizens have the right to obtain information from generally accessible sources. Restrictions exist for the protection of privacy, intellectual property or national security, as well as for the protection of minors. In a narrower sense, freedom of information refers to the legal right of access to official information. Since 2006, Germany has had the Freedom of Information Act, which allows citizens to request access to documents from federal authorities without giving reasons. In addition to the federal authorities, almost all federal states also have their own freedom of information laws. Despite these laws, the general public is often insufficiently informed about their rights.

Globalisation and information ethics

Information ethics must also deal with globalisation and its ethical challenges. With the internationalisation of productive forces and increasing automation, the world of work is changing dramatically. Social inequality and structural unemployment are key challenges that need to be reflected upon ethically in order to develop appropriate social and political structures.

Electronic democratisation processes, such as e-participation, could involve citizens worldwide more closely in political decision-making processes. However, these processes are often limited by technological and social barriers such as the digital divide.

Education and the digital divide

One particular area of information ethics is the role of information in education. Access to information is an essential good that supports equal opportunities and the realisation of individual life plans. However, the increasing commercialisation of access to information, for example through high costs for educational licences, can represent a barrier and reinforce inequalities. This leads to questions of justice and equitable access to information.

E-democracy and e-participation

E-democracy and e-participation offer the opportunity to involve citizens more closely in political decision-making processes. Information ethics analyses how technological means can be used to promote democratic processes. It also addresses the integrity and security of systems and the protection of personal data.

Design ethics: ethics by design

An important aspect of information ethics is design ethics, in which ethical considerations are incorporated into the design of new technologies and information systems from the outset. This concerns both technical development and the regulatory framework.

Ethics and artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a current and relevant topic within information ethics. Ethics in AI encompasses questions of algorithm design, fairness, transparency, explainability and accountability. The use of AI poses significant ethical challenges as these technologies can make autonomous decisions that have far-reaching effects on people's lives.

Conclusion

Information ethics is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field that addresses the moral challenges of the modern information society. It provides an important framework for promoting the responsible use of information, data and technologies. Advancing digitalisation and the associated fourth revolution according to Floridi are central points of reference here and illustrate the relevance of comprehensive ethical reflection in this area. The information and considerations presented here provide an overview of the complex ethical issues that are relevant in the information age and show that information ethics and the understanding of systems can make a significant contribution to shaping a just and responsible information society.