Critical Theory of Information

[gL.edu] This article gathers contributions by Langdon Oldenburg, developed within the context of the Conceptual clarification about "Information, Knowledge and Philosophy", under the supervisión of J.M. Díaz Nafría.

This article expands on Critical Theory as it applies to information. It starts as a general introduction and approaches the importance of this topic.  It then introduces Information Science and conflicts between a critical approach and traditional information science approaches including the constructive approach to gathering information. The article proceeds into the idea of information as a commodity, the most common approach in Critical Theory of Information. Expanding on this, common topics of critique are introduced, starting with ideas surrounding Surveillance Capitalism and how information is acquired. It then delves into library technology as it pertains to access to and collection of information. Finally the article elaborates on media and information communication critiques. Misunderstood connections between economic prosperity and general well-being and the idea of capability and public empowerment are the primary ideas discussed.

Critical Theory and Information Usage

Critical Theory as a process is most effective when applied to specific systems or ideas. With a focused scope, we can more accurately and thoroughly analyze the existing, producing a greater understanding and more efficient, pointed solutions. The accuracy, use, and communication of information is an integral factor of society and politics, modern Capitalism included. By approaching information science through a critical lens (see the article on Critical Theory for more information) we can make deductions about the role of information in the modern social climate and can more accurately find examples of domination and propose better systems.

Conflicts with Traditional Information Science Practices

While the general nature of Information Science should lend well to a number of perspectives and techniques, traditional practices often conflict with the core concepts of Critical Theory. Information Science itself could be examined as a system of domination due to the prevalence of research to be conducted from the funding and for the benefit of government and businesses, both targets of many critical projects as examples of dominating power systems.  The reliability of this information is essential to the development of Information Science as a whole. Information Science is typically an additive process with layers constantly being compounded on to expand on previous “empirical” research. The foundation of Critical Theory, on the other hand, is that of a reductive, materialistic process where nothing is assumed to be accurate or applicable except basic matter. Thus, applying the critical lens to existing “uncritical” research would be an inherently flawed approach as argued by Ronald E. Day.  Fortunately, many of these conflicts are subject to the philosopher’s perspective and specific projects. Critics can therefore examine the use and function of information within the existing social context with or without limited use of previous research conducted from an information science perspective.

Information as a Commodity

Due to the nature of Critical Theory as a materialistic inquiry, any analyses of information systems must ground themselves in basic matter. Because of this, many people identify information itself as a commodity to be manipulated and distributed, instead of considering information as a basic constituent of the process of interaction among agents (observe that from this processual perspective -undermined by the commodified view-, if these agents are individual or collectives, we are talking of social interaction, social dynamics, etc). However, from the point of view of commodification, information is detached from the process to which it genuinely belongs. 

This idea is based on the work of Herbert Marcuse with regard to technological advancement being a neutral force that is harnessed as a commodity by prevailing systems.  He argues that technology use and advancement, rather than physical technology itself, can be manipulated to a greater effect making the existence of technology itself a commodity in whatever state it happens to be in. When the same concept is applied to information, we are able to analyze the overarching systems that manipulate information to support any given idea. We look at information as a collective understanding, not delving into the specifics of the content. Common topics of inquiry are: how information is acquired, who has access to information, how information is communicated, and what information is presented.

Common Topics of Critique

Critique of Information Acquisition and Surveillance Capitalism

Prevailing power systems have distinct control over how information is gathered and in a modern technology age this is even more true. The idea of Surveillance Capitalism was first introduced by Shoshana Zuboff and describes the collection and privatization of information by corporations. This is done through online data collection, and even sometimes collaboration with state agencies. While Zuboff did not inherently practice Critical Theory, her ideas heavily support Critical Theory of Information and has subsequently been adopted into the critical mindset by scholars such as Christian Fuchs.  The idea of Surveillance Capitalism describes a method by which thriving capitalists financially and socially suppress lower classes through information acquisition.  

Surveillance Capitalism is practiced by large companies, Google and Facebook for example, as a means to generate profit. They use their platforms to gather user information before selling said data to third parties. This practice has two methods of class domination. Firstly it increases financial disparity by utilizing a commodity possessed by lower classes to increase the wealth of the upper class. Secondly, it provides potentially malicious parties with important, personal information. This is all often done invisibly with little to no transparency from the corporations themselves about their intentions. User agreements even provide a legal base for this malpractice.

Zuboff claims a distinction between Surveillance Capitalism and Surveillance State, but reform could shape politics rather than economics.  Contrary to Critical Theory, she does not call for rebellion but takes a more postmodern approach by advocating for higher government regulation.  As adopted by other authors, however, radical change is often called for. Grégiore Mallard introduces the primary implications of a critical approach in a modern society by discussing the potential influence of Zuboff’s work on current legislation and neoliberalism. This is targeted at a wider audience hoping to inform and ultimately call to action. With further advancements to technology, however, the threat of data breaches and Surveillance Capitalism as a whole only grows.

Critiques of Information Storage & Access

Ajit K. Pyati is one primary advocate for a Marcusean approach as it applies to information, arguing that modern information studies already treat information as a commodity. He further asserts that in contemporary capitalist society the privatization of information in libraries is an important problem to be examined critically. His argument is that information and communication technologies (ICTs) are becoming increasingly more prominent in the modern and future library contexts, leading to a disparity both in who can access and who can contribute to the information therein. A joint venture into technology and information studies, Pyati calls for a critical analysis of current conditions, citing declining literacy rates among other factors.

John Buschman similarly advocates for the use of Critical Theory as an approach to improving library technology. He emphasizes the focus on information contribution as the primary force of domination present in modern libraries. Through technology, private universities, businesses or even government entities have continuously greater control over the availability of information in libraries. Furthermore, the digitization of libraries increases opportunity for domination when compared to traditional paper libraries. As technology becomes more prevalent in information storage roles, it contributes more and more to a group’s ability to harness information. Information, in turn, becomes more dangerous in its ability to dominate lower classes, but more effective in tearing down power systems as well.

Critiques of Information Communication

Critical theory remains one of two major approaches to analyzing media and information communication, the other being critical political economy of culture or media (PEM).  PEM is a more modern approach yet, despite being based in politics, many argue that authors in this category lose sight of capitalism itself as a primary contributor to the modern media economy. This is likely due to the extreme focus on capitalism in an attempt to stray away from the many previous contributors practicing Critical Theory.  From a critical perspective, Theodor W. Adorno from the Frankfurt School and György Lukács, a Marxist philosopher, were two of the most influential figures on this topic. This perspective had its own drawbacks as Critical Theory’s emphasis on normativity often led to underwhelming specificity when engaging topics directly.  

One modern examination of the media under capitalism comes from David Hesmondalgh, specifying issues such as wealth disparity as it aligns with media portrayal of well-being. Modern capitalism thrives on the portrayal of society as “flourishing”. The economy is perceived as good, Gross Domestic Product per capita is increasing, etc. This is often misconstrued as a positive representation of quality of life. The media offers positive reinforcement for existing opinions on the state, often based in nationalism. This sews contentment and ignorance in the public without the need to reveal the lack of relation and even contradictions between what is presented and the reality of trends in well-being under capitalism.  

Hesmondalgh also cites the work of Amartya Sen on the presentation of “capability”. This is the idea that someone is able to increase their social or economic standing given motivation. Sen uses this as the basis for his aptly called “capabilities approach” to economic analysis.  Effective economies and political climates empower citizens to pursue benefits. The media play a large role in this regard, both in misleading those constrained by the ‘lower’ systems and in communicating, or failing to communicate, the opportunities available in the ‘higher’ systems. The institutions that control popular media then utilize these outlets to balance social narratives between pacifying the public with opportunity and coating their own pockets.

While there is no objectively most efficient approach to media analysis, these systems derived from Critical Theory offer interpretations that isolate specific issues with a modern capitalistic economy.