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| | ==== Abtract ==== |
| Critical theory is a philosophical and sociological movement that has its origins in the Frankfurt School and is concerned with criticising social, political and cultural structures. This theory assumes that society is not neutral, but is characterised by various interests. Central to Critical Theory is the analysis of power structures, ideologies and the culture industry perpetuated by the mass media and capitalism. Critical theory challenges the idea that advancements in technology and social organisation naturally encompass increased freedom and justice. | | Critical theory is a philosophical and sociological movement that has its origins in the Frankfurt School and is concerned with criticising social, political and cultural structures. This theory assumes that society is not neutral, but is characterised by various interests. Central to Critical Theory is the analysis of power structures, ideologies and the culture industry perpetuated by the mass media and capitalism. Critical theory questions the assumption that technological progress and social development automatically lead to more freedom and justice. Rather, it argues that such developments are often used to stabilise existing power relations. Its main aim was to analyse existing social conditions, point out their contradictions and explore the possibilities of change towards a more just society. |
| Instead, it claims such developments are frequently instrumentalized to maintain existing power relations. It focused on examining social conditions in their current form, analysing their contradictions and explore the possibilities of change towards a more equal society.
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| == Introduction and historical development of critical theory == | | == Introduction and historical development of critical theory == |
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| The role of [[information]] and [[knowledge]] in philosophy has a long history that is closely linked to fundamental questions of cognition, communication and truth. In the context of critical theory, information and knowledge is analysed in a specific way, particularly in relation to its function in modern society and its connection to power and domination. Critical theory represents a bridge between classical philosophical reflections on information and its role in social practice.
| | Max Horkheimer, a leading thinker of the Frankfurt School, distinguishes between traditional theory and critical theory in his 1937 essay “Traditional and Critical Theory”. This essay serves as a foundational text for understanding critical theory, which Horkheimer defines in opposition to traditional approaches that accept the existing social order as a given. Traditional theories, particularly in the social sciences, often model themselves after the natural sciences, aiming to describe reality by mirroring facts or establishing law-like generalizations. While Horkheimer does not dismiss empirical research, he criticizes traditional theory for failing to examine the broader social context in which it operates. This form of positivism views science as a purely theoretical activity, detached from practical concerns, while paradoxically reinforcing dominant ideologies and power structures through its reliance on established categories and concepts. In this way, traditional knowledge production, which is supposed to offer insights into the social order, often becomes an obstacle to meaningful social change. |
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| Critic theory originated in the 1920s at the Frankfurt School, an intellectual circle of social scientists and philosophers working at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt am Main. The institute was founded in 1923 and aimed to critically analyse the social, political and economic conditions of the time. The thinkers of the Frankfurt School were particularly influenced by Marxism, but combined it with other theoretical approaches such as the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud and the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. The term critical theory was coined by Max Horkheimer, who used it for the first time in his 1937 essay entitled "Traditional and Critical Theory". The author takes a critical look at the ideal and operation of post-Copernican science. The main features of critical theory are elaborated as a counter-model. Central to them was the analysis of capitalist society and its effects on the freedom and consciousness of the individual. Critical theory was mostly defined through the works by thinkers such as Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm.<ref> Bronner, S. E. (2011). Critical theory: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. </ref>
| | In contrast, critical theory seeks to reflect on the context of its own development and to act as a transformative force within that context. It embraces an explicitly interdisciplinary approach, bridging empirical research with the philosophical reflection needed to understand historical conditions and to mediate between specialized disciplines. Unlike traditional theory, critical theory is not content with merely describing social reality. Its goal is to uncover the forces of domination that shape society and to generate insights that can inform practical action and stimulate transformation. It aspires to unite theory and practice, fostering what Horkheimer calls “a dynamic unity with the oppressed class.” Guided by an emancipatory interest, critical theory seeks to abolish social injustice and establish reasonable conditions of life. Horkheimer explicitly states that this theory is not concerned with increasing knowledge for its own sake but aims at “emancipation from slavery” in the broadest sense: the elimination of all forms of domination. |
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| === Existing Notions of “Critique” ===
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| Despite the common use of the term “critique” since the 18th century, many different ideas have been asserted about the proper nature of the word. These vary greatly from its origins in French and Greek as a subjective, opinionated review to the self-contextual understanding of 20th century immanent critique focusing on internal contradictions. While time and culture play a key role in how one goes about a critique, context and scope seem to have the greatest impact within a modern understanding. Analyzing theory related to Existentialism, for example, will not be grounded in current trends and existing discrepancies as opposed to a more normative cultural analysis posed by Critical Theory. According to Professor and sociologist Christian Fuchs, within a modern understanding of cultural critique there are three primary viewpoints, those being: a positivistic view, the postmodern ideal, and Marxist critique.<ref>Fuchs, Christian. (2008). Towards the Critical Theory of Information. In ''Qué es Información? (What is Information?) Proceedings of the First International Experts in Information Theories. An Interdisciplinary Approach,'' November 6-7, 2008, ed. José María Díaz Nafria and Francisco Salto Alemany, 247-316. León: Universidad de León</ref>
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| Starting with the positivist perspective, it utilizes discourse as a basis for forming individual opinions. It is often characterized by a cynical approach to existing power structures and rejects a normative viewpoint, instead encouraging individuals to extract informed opinions. It is not committed to social or political change, opting to build off the present systems. Postmodernism takes a similarly cynical approach as with positivism, but purely results in the equalization of social structures; existing structures and objectivity are rejected for an anti-hierarchical perspective. Within this realm local politics is elevated as the foundation for greater social change. Finally is the Marxist approach, the foundation for the Frankfurtian ideas of Critical Theory. Originally intended for religious critique, this system was then transitioned to apply to social theory and is often seen as a radicalization of the previously discussed ideas. The social position of postmodernism is accepted (the viewpoint of the oppressed) although it considers this a normative idea. Works from this perspective are decidedly anti-capitalist, the prevailing economic power system since its inception, and call for radical social change. It is often communicated that nothing less than revolution could direct society to a more equal system, diminishing domination and exploitation. While different Frankfurt School scholars would adopt characteristics of all three ideologies, Marxism would serve as the primary contributor to Critical Theory.
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| == Critical Theory versus Traditional Theory ==
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| Max Horkheimer, a leading thinker of the Frankfurt School, distinguishes between traditional theory and critical theory in his 1937 essay “Traditional and Critical Theory”. This essay serves as a foundational text for understanding critical theory, which Horkheimer defines in opposition to traditional approaches that accept the existing social order as a given. Traditional theories, particularly in the social sciences, have typically emulated the natural sciences, seeking to describe reality by duplicating material facts or producing law-like generalizations. Although Horkheimer does not reject empirical research, he attacks traditional theory as one that does not consider the social context in which it operates. This form of positivism views science as a purely theoretical activity, that is mostly detached from practical concerns, while paradoxically at the same time reinforcing dominant ideologies and power structures through its reliance on established categories and concepts instead of helping people to question those. In this way, the traditional knowledge production, which is actually supposed to offer insights into the social order, often becomes an obstacle to meaningful social change.<ref>Horkheimer, M. (1972). Traditional and critical theory (M. J. O'Connell, Trans.). In Critical theory: Selected essays (pp. 188–243). Continuum. (Original work published 1937).</ref>
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| In contrast, critical theory is the one that seeks to reflect on the context of its own development and wants to act as the transformative force within that context. It embraces an explicitly interdisciplinary approach, that is connecting the empirical research with the philosophical reflection that is needed to understand historical conditions and to mediate between differente specialized disciplines. Unlike traditional theory, critical theory is not content with that is only describing social reality. The goal is to uncover the forces of domination which are shaping society and to generate insights that can finally inform practical action and stimulate real transformation. It aspires to unite theory and practice, on order to foster what Horkheimer calls “a dynamic unity with the oppressed class.” Which is also guieded by an emancipatory interest. Critical theory seeks to abolish social injustice and establish reasonable conditions of life. Horkheimer explicitly states that this theory is not concerned with increasing knowledge for its own sake but aims at emancipation from slavery in the broadest sense: the elimination of all forms of domination.<ref>Held, D. (1980). Introduction to critical theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. University of California Press.</ref> | |
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| == Frankfurtian Definitions of Critical Theory ==
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| Despite being heavily influenced by Marxist critique, there is no widely accepted definition for Critical Theory, rather a spectrum of specificity ranging from vague and cyclical to narrowly focused on a single object, idea, or even project. Each has their own strengths and limitations based on the scope of the work and interest of the writer.<ref name=":0">Díaz Nafría, J. M., Pérez-Montoro Gutiérrez, M., & Salto Alemany, F. (2016). Critical Theory of Information, Communication, Media and Technology. In ''glossariumBiTri'' (2nd ed., pp. 45–58). essay, Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena Santa Elena. </ref> Michael Payne defines Critical Theory as, “Research projects in the social sciences and/or humanities that attempt to bring truth and political engagement into alignment”,<ref>Payne, Michael, ed. (1997). A dictionary of cultural and critical theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell.</ref> focusing on politics and information usage as the catalysts for social change. This definition is quite general in its application and loses sight of Critical Theory’s inherently normative nature. Payne calls for general political engagement as a means to shape society which would in turn shape future politics, the latter being another common component across definitions. Often this political ideology is concentrated solely on criticism of Capitalism, as the current prevailing power system, yet others identify the opportunity for a cyclical process where critical analysis can be utilized to combat future injustices as power changes hands and new systems are developed. One such example comes from Fred Rush saying, “[Critical Theory] is a way to instigate social change by providing knowledge of the forces of social inequality that can, in turn, inform political action aimed at emancipation (or at least diminishing domination and inequality)”.<ref>Rush, Fred. (2004). Conceptual foundations of early Critical Theory. ''In The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory'', 6-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> This process could, in turn, be used to analyze any established power system going forward. Rush’s concept, on the other hand, demonstrates the materialistic utilization of information as a commodity but does not encourage the formation of strategies in which to combat domination by the practitioner and relies solely on the will of society to enact change based on revelations brought about by his critical analysis.
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| Despite the discrepancies, most agree that Critical Theory follows two primary trends. Firstly, it seeks to empower humanity by identifying flaws in existing power structures and asserting that said power structures are the foundation of inequality.<ref name=":0" /> Practitioners of Critical Theory sought to shift the blame for social inequity from the oppressed persons to institutional systems by informing the public of institutionalized domination. This would spur radical social and political change, ultimately elevating the common person beyond their current suppressed states. Secondly, Critical Theory supports the negation of power structures and the restructuring of society from the ground up as opposed to amending that which is already in place. The current system was analyzed as though beyond salvation and only through complete reformation or regression could negative aspects be remedied. Using a materialistic lens, nothing is beyond scrutiny aside from basic matter, most often in the form of material commodities (property, information, etc.).
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| == Key concepts of critical theory== | | == Key concepts of critical theory== |
| === Criticism of ideology ===
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| The Ideology critique is a central point to Critical Theory and focuses on uncovering how the dominant ideologies obscure social inequalities and power structures by presenting them as natural, inevitable, or unchangeable. Ideologies mostly work to stabilize the existing social order and most importantly prevent the individuals from recognizing their own oppression.
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| The following key aspects explain this topic in an wider form.
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| * ''Ideology'' often serves to legitimize and normalize social hierarchies and by this it is making systems of domination appear rational or unquestionable.
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| * The term ''culture industry'', coined by Horkheimer and Adorno, is a industry that produces mass culture and entertainment that pacify individuals and suppress critical thinking. Whereas the media seems to lead to more awareness or resistance, it is usually the opposite; cultural products are leading to an attitude of conformity and passivity.
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| * The ''media'' and other ''cultural institutions'' are perpetuating the dominant ideologies, by this they are shaping public opinion, values, and desires in a way that aligns with the interests of those that have power. Often this is used through content that is repeated in many forms and presented to the individuals.
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| An example from our time: The capitalist system promotes consumer culture. Where happiness and fulfillment are always tied to material consumption. This ideology distracts many individuals from questioning systemic injustices, for example the exploitation and inequality and the costs of this consumption. It always redirects their energies toward superficial satisfaction and keeps the people occupied through this need.<ref>Marcuse, H. (1964). One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. Beacon Press.</ref>
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| === The dialectic of enlightenment ===
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| The Dialectic of Enlightenment, developed by Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno in 1944, highlights the paradoxical consequences of the Enlightenment. While the Enlightenment was allegedly aimed to promote reason, freedom, and human progress, it became clear that it ultimately also led to new forms of domination and control. The pursuit of reason and scientific progress has, in many ways, devolved into what they call instrumental reason. It means reducing rationality to a tool for technical efficiency, control, and exploitation.<ref>Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. W. (2002). Dialectic of Enlightenment (E. Jephcott, Trans.). Stanford University Press</ref>
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| ====The Core Thesis of Dialectic of Enlightenment: ====
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| Horkheimer and Adorno regarded their joint work as a “self-assurance regarding the premises of Critical Theory” in the light of the historical and societal conditions of their time. Central to these conditions was the rise of fascism and the broader crisis of Enlightenment thought. In the Dialectic of Enlightenment, they “tell the story of the glory and misery of Enlightenment”<ref>Wellmer, A. (1985). Adorno, Anwalt des Nicht-Identischen. In A. Wellmer, Zur Dialektik von Moderne und Postmoderne: Vernunftkritik nach Adorno (pp. 137–152). Suhrkamp.</ref>. They argue that the failure of the Enlightenment lies within the very structure of its rationality. Specifically, they identify the “unity of formal and instrumental reason” as the root of this failure. This rationality—distinctly Western and oriented toward self-preservation and domination—can be traced back to the origins of human history.
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| The transition "From Myth to Enlightenment – and Back to Mythology" captures Horkheimer and Adorno's argument that while the Enlightenment sought to dispel myth through reason, it ultimately reverted into a new form of mythology through the domination of nature and human thought. Horkheimer and Adorno demonstrate that the mythical understanding of the world, which Enlightenment sought to dispel, is itself rationalized through scientific and technological progress. Yet, as humanity perfects its domination over nature, Enlightenment paradoxically reverts into mythology. This occurs through the domination of both the “external objectified nature and the repressed inner nature” of human beings.<ref>Habermas, J. (1985). Die Verschlingung von Mythos und Aufklärung: Horkheimer und Adorno. In J. Habermas, ''Der philosophische Diskurs der Moderne: Zwölf Vorlesungen'' (p. 134). Suhrkamp.</ref>
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| === Theory and Practice (Emancipation) ===
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| A central idea of Critical Theory is that it does not aim merely to explain society but it wants to transform it. The unification of theory and practice is in this context essential to enable emancipation and the elimination of social injustice. Critical Theory is rejecting the notion of a purely neutral or detached science and philosophy. Instead, it calls for a critical reflection on their role within society, it emphasizes that knowledge and inquiry are never value-free but are always embedded in a specific historical and social contexts.
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| The ultimate goal of this approach is to challenge and transform existing social structures in order to create freedom from domination for the individual and help to establish conditions of justice and self-determination. Traditional theories, such as positivism, serve as a clear contrast: they describe social reality without questioning the power relations and injustices that underpin it. The critic is that they are merely observing and legitimizing the status quo. These approaches fail to contribute to societal change. Critical Theory, by contrast, insists that understanding must be always linked to action and mus foster a deeper critique of existing conditions. Because only these approaches open in the end the pathways for real social transformation and emancipation. <ref>Celikates, R., Flynn, J. (2023). Critical theory (Frankfurt School). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/critical-theory/</ref>
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| === Alienation and Repression ===
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| Another key concept is the concept of ''alienation'' and ''repression''. This concept is built on the ideas of Marx and Freud. In this concept critical theory is analysing how individuals are becoming alienated through their work, media, and culture. This alienation occurs because through these means, human beings are increasingly distanced from their true needs, their creativity, and autonomy. And at the same time their desires are being shaped often without their perception by mechanisms of repressive consumption and social control.
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| Another central aspect of this concept is the observation that society generates artificial needs that align perfectly with the existing social and economic order in order to maintain the status quo. On the contrary, the goal should be emancipation or self-realisation, not the pursuit of superficial satisfaction through consumption, which can never be achieved. This process serves to reinforce the status quo, as individuals become passive and conformist, they are losing their capacity for critical thought and resistance.
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| In this context, human beings are transformed into objects of economic and social control. Their autonomy and individuality are diminished. Because their lives are shaped by forces that serve the interests of power and capital. Herbert Marcuse, in his influential work "One-Dimensional Man" (1964), illustrates this phenomenon in which he shows how capitalist society suppresses critical consciousness. This happens by seducing individuals into a cycle of consumerism and the offer of false satisfaction. At the same time opposition and social change are effectively neutralized and discouraged by the system.
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| This analysis reveals how alienation and repression work together to maintain domination: It can be summed up, that individuals are kept distracted, fragmented, and dependent and their true potential for freedom and self-determination remains unfulfilled.<ref>Marcuse, H. (1964). One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. Beacon Press.</ref>
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| == Examples to illustrate critical theory==
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| To better understand critical theory, it is helpful to look at concrete examples of how it is applied in practice. These examples illustrate how the theory can be used to analyse and criticise social phenomena.
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| ==== Analysing the media landscape ====
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| As mentioned critical theory often uses the media as an object of investigation in order to uncover ideologies which are disseminated through the mass communication. Critical Theory observes the Media often as a tool that influences the public opinion and by this reproduces the existing power structures. In this context, critical theorists try to analyse and then criticise how news and the entertainment media is helping to reinforce these existing social hierarchies. Moreover, aspects of media criticism can include various topics. For example, examining the representation of social groups, criticising one-sided reporting in the news or lastly analysing the economic interests behind the media.
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| A concrete example can be derived from observing news channels. It often happens that two different channels present the same events differently depending on their political orientation or the interests of their owners. Such analyses stresses the relevance of how media content is used to promote specific values.<ref>StudySmarter. (2024). Kritische Theorie. https://www.studysmarter.de/schule/politik/staatstheorie-und-politische-theorie/kritische-theorie/#anchor-1</ref>
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| ==== Critical analysis of the education system====
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| Another example to illustrate the way of thinking and the core of critical theory is an example from the field of education. In his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Paulo Freire describes precisely this fundamental topic. He wants to create a new awareness and use the book to help students question and challenge domination and the prevailing beliefs and practices instead of absorbing information passively without actively engaging in the learning process. More detailed, Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed applies critical theory to the study of education. And writing in the 1960s, Freire criticised the traditional educational model in which the teacher is an unquestionable authority figure who transmits knowledge to the student. And the student's role is to passively receive and memorize everything that the teacher says in the classroom. Freire argued that that the traditional model of education supports the development of anti-democratic authoritarian politics because, at a very early age, students learn that they should be passive, that they should avoid asking questions, and that they should always accept and do what they are told. And those ideals, which he links to the governing philosophy of totalitarian states, become part of the ideology that is imprinted on people through the education system.
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| As an alternative to that more traditional understanding of education, Freire proposes a completely different educational model called the problem-posing model, in which students learn through collaborative discussions, moderated by teachers, and are encouraged to constantly question the sources of information that they are given in the classroom. And the idea is that through an internalization of the value in collaborative learning and challenging authorities, education as critical pedagogy can build more vibrant democratic institutions and contest both authoritarian and anti-democratic politics as a sort of counter-ideology. herein lies the structure from which much of critical theory derives: it questions typical social institutions and from this starting point discusses how such particular institutions may contribute to a situation of oppression or of exploitation. The ultimate result is the ability to propose alternatives that are founded on progressive ideas of democracy. In addition, Freire highlights love and empathy in teaching. He stresses not to treat love as a sentimental expression but as an ontological characteristic of humanization. Teachers, he asserts, should be concerned about their students' humanity and strive for their liberation. Freire's thought was deeply compatible with critical theory because the former similarly requires an 'unveiling of the ideological masking' by dominant elites as a strategy of unmasking and building in its place the critical awareness of social inequality for societal change through education and reflection.<ref>Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary ed.). Continuum. (Original work published 1970)</ref>
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| == Current relevance and application ==
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| Even though Critical theory, whose origins lie in the Frankfurt School of the 1930s, is almost 100 years old it has evolved over the decades and still remains relevant and applicable today in various social, cultural and political contexts. Its main objectives have even become increasingly important, especially in the light of the current global challenges. Some key areas in which critical theory is relevant today are the following.
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| ===Information and the Digital Society===
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| The rise of the digital age and the information society has brought new urgency to the discussion of information. Critical theorists analyze the ambivalent role of modern information systems, highlighting both their potential for domination and their capacity for emancipation.
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| Information has become a vital resource in contemporary economic and political systems, often exploited for purposes of surveillance, control, and behavioral manipulation. [[Artificial Intelligence]], Algorithms and data-driven technologies not only track individuals’ actions but also shape their decisions, reinforcing power structures and reducing autonomy. Moreover in the realm of digital public discourse, information is increasingly instrumentalized to propagate ideological narratives and show confusion. The spread of ''fake news'' and deliberate ''misinformation'' undermines trust in knowledge and destabilizes democratic processes.
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| But there is also a Potential for Liberation. Despite these challenges, critical theorists also recognize the emancipatory potential of information. When harnessed effectively, information can foster critical awareness, empower marginalized voices, and support social movements aimed at transformative change. By reclaiming the use of information for collective empowerment, it can also become a tool for challenging domination and promoting justice in the digital society.<ref>World Economic Forum. (2024). Is artificial intelligence the antidote to disinformation? https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2024/01/ai-disinformation-global-threat/</ref>
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| === Feminism, critical race and colonial history ===
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| Today's application of critical theory encompasses a variety of new relevant aspects. Today, critical theory integrates new aspects such as '''feminist''' theories, '''critical race''' theories and '''postcolonial approaches'''. It now takes greater account of gender-specific oppression and the relationships of power and exploitation that are characterised by race and colonial history. It also emphasises the importance of intersectionality, i.e. the interconnectedness of social categories such as gender, race, class and other forms of inequality. This expansion enables a more comprehensive analysis of social structures and the various mechanisms that create and maintain social injustice.<ref> Celikates, R., Flynn, J. (2023). Critical theory (Frankfurt School). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/critical-theory/</ref>
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| === Ecological crisis & the globalised world===
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| A central point is the '''ecological crisis''' and sustainability. Critical theory helps to understand the deep connections between capitalism, technological development and ecological destruction. Ecocritical approaches that have emerged from this tradition of thought scrutinise how capitalist systems exploit natural resources and what alternative social models would be possible to overcome this exploitation.<ref>Celikates, R., Flynn, J. (2023). Critical theory (Frankfurt School). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/critical-theory/</ref>
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| In addition to ecological concerns, critical theory also provides tools for analyzing economic inequality in an increasingly globalized and digitalized world. Globalization and the digital economy, characterized by platforms like Amazon and Google, have given rise to new forms of exploitation, labor control, and data manipulation. Critical theorists examine how neoliberal ideologies reinforce these inequalities and the consequences of platform capitalism, where labor, consumption, and data are commodified. This analysis reflects Horkheimer, Adorno, and Habermas's critiques of economic systems and their focus on the effects of capitalism on democracy and social justice.<ref>Fuchs, C. (2014). Digital Labour and Karl Marx. Routledge.
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| </ref>
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| == References ==
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| [[Category:Article]] | | [[Category:Article]] |
| [[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
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| [[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]
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