glossaLAB - User contributions [en]

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-29T17:36:09Z

Philip Deischl: Finished Proof reading and did some minor structure adjustments

== Introduction ==
"Intelligence is not to make no mistakes But quickly to see how to make them good." (Bertold Brecht, ''The Decision'' (play), 1930) With this short definition Brecht effectively defines intelligence as the ability to quickly adapt to a new situation.

== Etymology ==

The word intelligence stems from the Latin noun ''intelligentia''. Which translates to "the action or faculty of understanding". It can also be derived from the verb ''intellegere'', meaning "to understand".<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence John Carson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015]</ref> Another definition of ''intellegere'' is "the action of acquiring, processing, and storing of information." <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence Wilma C.M. Resing, in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005]</ref>

Today intelligence is defined as "The faculty of understanding; intellect. Also as a count noun: a mental manifestation of this faculty, a capacity to understand."<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2404969105 ''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. “intelligence (''n.''),” September 2023]</ref> The fact that the meaning of the word has been so well preserved, after having been translated into many languages over the course of several centuries, shows how important it is to the basics of philosophy.

== Definitions throughout History ==

=== Diogenes of Appolonia (~500 BC) ===
Probably one of the earliest definitions in history. He defined intelligence - noesis, in ancient Greek, an intuitive and rational way of thinking that defines and grasps the universe - as air. He thought of neosis as the mind itself, so in a way intelligence is what causes a being's existence. This is also reinforced by his thought of air being inherent to intelligence and that it provides intelligence to beings. He dubbed the provided intelligence as ''air-intelligence''. Over the course of existence living beings also give off air-intelligence and once they run out of it, they die. This way other beings can gain intelligence. Furthermore, he thinks of air of as a divine being - as God -, because he thinks of it as a form of life essence that is all knowing and can express itself in many different forms. Effectively one can think of a soul as a dense version of air-intelligence. Every being has a soul that is provided by the air and once one passes the soul returns to the greater existence of air, providing intelligence to other souls. Diogenes also explained different forms of intelligence with the five senses. Different beings breathe differently with different amounts of air, resulting in a better or worse perception of their surroundings with, for example, their hearing. This way one can perceive air-intelligence as a kind of medium that transfers [[Information (preliminary)|information]]. While the medium also affects the being’s predisposition to receive the [[Information (preliminary)|information]]. He also explains pain and pleasure through different concentrations of air in the blood. Stating that when the blood flows well throughout the body, the air is well incorporated in it, but when they repel each other, the blood coagulates - resulting in pain. On top of that, the different levels of intelligence are a result of the different qualities of air. The more damp the air is, the lower the intelligence of the creates. He proclaims that in order to become more intelligent, and to live a good life, one needs to seek out warm, dry, and swift air, and to let it permeate one’s body. Finally, he also explains fertilization via air-intelligence. The sperm is provided with air through the blood and thus it instills intelligence into a new being. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/diogenes-of-apollonia/#H4 Jason Dockstader, Diogenes of Apollonia (5th cn. B.C.E.)]</ref>

=== Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) ===
The founder of the school of stoicism. One of his believes was that practical intelligence (PI) is a form of understanding ones surrounding. PI is the root to living well, a virtue, and wisdom. It is always good. Thus, living well usually includes PI. Conclusively, the wiser one becomes the better life choices one makes; hence, their life becomes better. Another conclusion one can get from this definition is that intelligence is the basis of morality. Without intelligence one would just follow their instincts and ignore the needs of other beings. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/a-ethics/ Clerk Shaw, Ancient Ethics]</ref>

=== Plotonius (204-270 AD) ===
The founder of Neoplatonism. His definition of intelligence was part of his definition of spiritual cosmology. All living beings emanate from three elements: The One, the Intelligence, and the Soul. The One's existence is independent of the Intelligence and the Soul, while also being their foundation. The Intelligence or Mind (Nous) is the source of being. It can be seen as the consciousness of the One. Plotonius once stated: "to think and to be are one and the same” (V.9.5; Parmenides, fragment 3). This is an important step in cognitive philosophy, as it starts to define what it means to exist. The Soul is entangled with the Intelligence, and it materializes and extends the spiritual actions of the mind. In a way the One can be seen as the imaginary space where the Intelligence, the mind, takes place. Meanwhile the Soul is the body that executes the actions the mind wants to achieve. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/plotinus/#SH2b Edward Moore, Plotinus (204—270 C.E.)]</ref>

=== Alan Turing (1912-1954 AD) ===
He was probably the first cognitivist, as he defined the basic logic of how data is received, processed, organized, and stored. However, he also created one of the best thought experiments to describe behaviorism: The [[Turing test]]. In behaviorism intelligence is not defined by thoughts - the mind -, but by actions of the being. The path of logic, of how the being came to this action, is irrelevant; only the result, the action, matters. In his thought experiment, Turing basically states, if a machine can come to the same results of a given problem as a human can, one can infer that the machine is intelligent. As it imitated the human’s behavior successfully, and a human is intelligent. Hence, Turing's definition of intelligence is the ability to come to an intelligent solution to any given problem. This definition opened the door to the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]].<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/#SSH1a.ii Larry Hauser, Behaviorism]</ref>

=== Howard Gardner (b.1943 AD) ===
Gardner defined the existence of intelligence with eight criteria:

# "the potential for brain isolation by brain damage": This effectively means a vital type of intelligence can be isolated during brain damage, to ensure survival.
# "it's place in evolutionary history": The prioritization of isolating and protecting a vital intelligence can be the result of evolution, to ensure survival.
# "the presence of core operations": Effectively being able to interact with their surrounding through senses.
# "susceptibility to encoding": A system needs to be able to accurately and systematically transfer and receive data.
# "a distinct developmental progression": The ability to learn and accumulate knowledge.
# "the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people": In a category of beings, there needs to be outliers in both the spectrum of high and low intelligence.
# "support from experimental psychology": The seventh and eighth category both rely on experiments done in studies. One such experiment would be: a person having to hold a conversation while walking and after a few minutes instead of walking they need to solve a crossword puzzle, while maintaining the conversation. The first task seems much more plausible, meaning two different types of intelligence are in play. On the other hand, the second task might seem impossible for most, thus the same type of intelligence is used for both tasks.
# "support from psychometric findings": see definition of 7.

If all these criteria applied to an activity, Garner defined it as intelligence. This finding supported his developed of the ''Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121125220607/http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/mitheory.shtml#outline Howard Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, 1999]</ref>

== Theory of Multiple Intelligences ==

Howard Gardner proposes there to be not just one type of intelligence, but eight:
{| class="wikitable"
|+The Eight Intelligences
!Intelligence
!End-State
!Core Components
|-
|Logical-mathematical
|Scientist
Mathematician
|Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning.
|-
|Linguistic
|Poet
Journalist
|Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language.
|-
|Musical
|Composer
Violinist
|Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness.
|-
|Spatial
|Navigator
Sculptor
|Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions.
|-
|Bodily-kinesthetic
|Dancer
Athlete
|Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully.
|-
|Interpersonal
|Therapist
Salesman
|Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.
|-
|Intrapersonal
|Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge
|Access to one's own feelings and the ability, to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence.
|-
|Naturalistic
|Farmer
Biological Scientist
|Ability to make acute discriminations of flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively.
|}
<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/Gardner1989.pdf Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch, Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1989]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20405529 Howard Gardner, Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages, 1995]</ref>

This revelation shows that intelligence is more complex than a problem that is decided with true or false. Furthermore, a door for criticism towards the educational system is opened. Most systems do not facilitate all types of intelligence equally, nearly neglecting some. One should also note that consciousness is not a necessity for intelligence to exist, as it is only the result of a strong intrapersonal intelligence.
== Different "beings" with Intelligence ==
Generally, we link intelligence with a ''living'' [[being]]. Nonetheless, thinkers like Turing suggest the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] - a ''non-living'' [[being]]. The fact that something can be considered a [[being]] while not being alive can be well explained by combining the idea of Plotinus and Gardner. Plotinus linked existence to the act of thinking, while Gardner defines thinking with his core components. Thus, anything that is able to successfully execute these components, should be considered a [[being]]. In conclusion, the moment anything or system shows forms of intelligence, one can define it as a [[being]] - living, non-living, or artificial.

== Testing for Intelligence ==
Having defined intelligence and its spectrum, leaves the question of "How to measure intelligence?" open. Over the course of history many tests have been developed. These tests have been generalized to three different beings, to account for different features of the different systems. For example, the spatial intelligence of a wild animal will be much better than that of an AI that helps translate languages. It would not make sense to test them with the same criteria.

=== Human Intelligence ===
In the beginning these tests served the goal of identifying people with mental illnesses to be able to help them. The first practical test was published by Alfred Bignet in 1903: The Bignet test. Later, in 1912, William Stern dubbed the measurement unit of intelligence as the "Intelligence Quotient" (IQ). A few years after, in 1923, Charles Spearman proposed the idea of the "g factor" (g), standing for general intelligence factor. Both the IQ and the g represent the general cognitive ability; however, the g is a mathematical construct that represents how a person performs similar on different cognitive tasks. While the IQ only measures the person's ability to perform given mental tasks. Additionally, the g factor is a constant throughout the entire existence of a given being. It also has the same value for different subjects. There is also the "s factor" which can affect the g positively or negatively, depending on the subject. The s factor could be improved by training in a given subject; it can be seen as a variable. <ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/psy_0003-5033_1907_num_14_1_3737 Binet et Simon, Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants, 1907]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=D6h9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 William Stern, The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Volume 1, 1914]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_intelligence_and_the_Princ/xv4MAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 Charles Spearman, The nature of "intelligence" and the principles of cognition, 1923]
</ref>

Much later, in 1963, the g factor was split up by Raymond Cattell's concept of fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). gf is the form of intelligence when one learns new information or is presented with an unknown problem, while gc is the form of intelligence that uses already previous knowledge to solve problems. During a person's life, gc increases until the thirties and then basically plateaus. gf, on the other hand peaks in the thirties and then drops off in a linear manner.<ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613486487?journalCode=pssa Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The Stability of Intelligence From Age 11 to Age 90 Years: The Lothian Birth Cohort of 1921. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2361-2368]</ref>

Another interesting observation is the "Flynn effect". It discerns the growth of the IQ of humanity over the course of time. In the past 100 years it rose by nearly 30 points. This trend was noticed, as the IQ gets normalized every few years to keep a bell curve centered on the IQ of 100. The causes are yet to be determined for sure, however this suggests that humanity is becoming more intelligent with education and choice of work; As education become more common in the last century and the fields of work have gotten more challenging on a mental level.<ref>[https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/mason/readings/flynn-IQgains-psychbul-1987.pdf James R. Flynn, Massive IQ Gain in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure?, 1987]</ref>

IQ tests are a decent generalization of some of Gardners intelligences, but several ones were unaccounted for. Resulting in the development of other tests. One such test is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEI). This test, first published in 2002, checks for one's emotional intelligence (EQ), which accounts for the inter- and intrapersonal intelligence that the IQ test fully neglects.<ref>[http://www.cjwolfe.com/MSCEIT%20Resource%20Report.pdf David R. Caruso, Resource Report: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test™, 2004]</ref>

=== Animal Intelligence ===
Humans have realized to be superior to animals in most forms of intelligence many centuries ago. We observed them as a basic form of intelligence for us humans. Thus, making them a great subject of ethical experimentation. This way the results could potentially be transferred from the animals to us humans. The main testing of intelligence is of behavioristic manner and mainly determines how fast an animal can achieve a given goal and make mental associations. This research is very important as it helps us develop our knowledge of neurology and psychology. A great example of psychology is the idea of classical conditioning. And for the aspect of neurology, the aspect of being able to associate certain brain regions to given behavior or actions is a superb example.

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

As previously mentioned, Turing developed the [[Turing test]]. This test is often used to check the intelligence level of [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]]. A great example is that an [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] beat a human in GO, a very complex board game.

However, [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] are usually very specialized, making them really intelligent in one specific task, while having abysmally low intelligence in almost every other aspect.

== Conclusion ==

Intelligence is the essence of existence. Intelligence can be displayed in at least eight different attributes, mentioned in Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Furthermore, each intelligence can be split once more, into a crystallized part and a fluid part. Resulting in a range of sixteen different intelligences. All these intelligences help a being overcome any kind of problem. The higher the given intelligence, the faster one comes to a solution.

Over the course of one's existence one chooses, by necessity or free will, what types of intelligence to pursue and thus strengthen. On this journey, one can also help educate others and thus promote the intelligence of others and indirectly pass on one's intelligence to others. By doing so, one helps increase the general intelligence of all beings they came in contact with throughout their existence.

Finally, one can agree with Diogenes of Appolonia's recommendation to seek out an intelligent life. All core components of the range of intelligence add more complexity to one's existence and thus make it stronger. Subsequently, increasing one’s intelligence is directly correlated to increasing one’s existence. Thus, one can conclude the existence, a being has fullended, was experienced more intensely, the more intelligent the being was.

== References ==

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-29T16:53:16Z

Philip Deischl: Added one short paragraph for a more clear understanding. Also did some rewordings to clarify the meaning.

== Introduction ==
"Intelligence is not to make no mistakes But quickly to see how to make them good." (Bertold Brecht, ''The Decision'' (play), 1930) With this short definition Brecht effectively defines intelligence as the ability to quickly adapt to a new situation.

== Etymology ==

The word intelligence stems from the Latin noun ''intelligentia''. Which translates to "the action or faculty of understanding". It can also be derived from the verb ''intellegere'', meaning "to understand".<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence John Carson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015]</ref> Another definition of ''intellegere'' is "the action of acquiring, processing, and storing of information." <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence Wilma C.M. Resing, in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005]</ref>

Today intelligence is defined as "The faculty of understanding; intellect. Also as a count noun: a mental manifestation of this faculty, a capacity to understand."<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2404969105 ''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. “intelligence (''n.''),” September 2023]</ref> The fact that the meaning of the word has been so well preserved, after having been translated into many languages over the course of several centuries, shows how important it is to the basics of philosophy.

== Definitions throughout History ==

=== Diogenes of Appolonia (~500 BC) ===
Probably one of the earliest definitions in history. He defined intelligence - noesis, in ancient Greek, an intuitive and rational way of thinking that defines and grasps the universe - as air. He thought of neosis as the mind itself, so in a way intelligence is what causes a being's existence. This is also reinforced by his thought of air being inherent to intelligence and that it provides intelligence to beings. He dubbed the provided intelligence as ''air-intelligence''. Over the course of existence living beings also give off air-intelligence and once they run out of it, they die. This way other beings can gain intelligence. Furthermore, he thinks of air of as a divine being - as God -, because he thinks of it as a form of life essence that is all knowing and can express itself in many different forms. Effectively one can think of a soul as a dense version of air-intelligence that. Every being has a soul that is provided by the air and once one passes the soul returns to the greater existence of air, providing intelligence to other souls. Diogenes also explained different forms of intelligence with the five senses. Different beings breathe differently with different amounts of air, resulting in a better or worse perception of their surroundings with, for example, their hearing. This way one can perceive air-intelligence as a kind of medium that transfers information. While the medium also affects the being’s predisposition to receive the information. He also explains pain and pleasure through different concentrations of air in the blood. Stating that when the blood flows well throughout the body, the air is well incorporated in it, but when they repel each other, the blood coagulates - resulting in pain. On top of that, the different levels of intelligence are a result of the different qualities of air. The more damp the air is, the lower the intelligence of the creates. He proclaims that in order to become more intelligent, and to live a good life, one needs to seek out warm, dry, and swift air, and to let it permeate one’s body. Finally, he also explains fertilization via air-intelligence. The sperm is provided with air through the blood and thus it instills intelligence into a new being. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/diogenes-of-apollonia/#H4 Jason Dockstader, Diogenes of Apollonia (5th cn. B.C.E.)]</ref>

=== Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) ===
The founder of the school of stoicism. One of his believes was that practical intelligence (PI) is a form of understanding ones surrounding. PI is the root to living well, a virtue, and wisdom. It is always good. Thus, living well usually includes PI. Conclusively, the wiser one becomes the better life choices one makes; hence, their life becomes better. Another conclusion one can get from this definition is that intelligence is the basis of morality. Without intelligence one would just follow their instincts and ignore the needs of other beings. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/a-ethics/ Clerk Shaw, Ancient Ethics]</ref>

=== Plotonius (204-270 AD) ===
The founder of Neoplatonism. His definition of intelligence was part of his definition of spiritual cosmology. All living beings emanate from three elements: The One, the Intelligence, and the Soul. The One's existence is independent of the Intelligence and the Soul, while also being their foundation. The Intelligence or Mind (Nous) is the source of being. It can be seen as the consciousness of the One. Plotonius once stated: "to think and to be are one and the same” (V.9.5; Parmenides, fragment 3). This is an important step in cognitive philosophy, as it starts to define what it means to exist. The Soul is entangled with the Intelligence, and it materializes and extends the spiritual actions of the mind. In a way the One can be seen as the imaginary space where the Intelligence, the mind, takes place. Meanwhile the Soul is the body that executes the actions the mind wants to achieve. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/plotinus/#SH2b Edward Moore, Plotinus (204—270 C.E.)]</ref>

=== Alan Turing (1912-1954 AD) ===
He was probably the first cognitivist, as he defined the basic logic of how data is received, processed, organized, and stored. However, he also created one of the best thought experiments to describe behaviorism: The [[Turing test]]. In behaviorism intelligence is not defined by thoughts - the mind -, but by actions of the being. The path of logic, of how the being came to this action, is irrelevant, only the result, the action, matters. In his thought experiment, Turing basically states, if a machine can come to the same results of a given problem as a human can, one can infer that the machine is intelligent. As it imitated the human’s behavior successfully, and a human is intelligent. Hence, Turing's definition of intelligence is the ability to come to an intelligent solution to any given problem. This definition opened the door to the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]].<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/#SSH1a.ii Larry Hauser, Behaviorism]</ref>

=== Howard Gardner (b.1943 AD) ===
Gardner defined the existence of intelligence with eight criteria:

# "the potential for brain isolation by brain damage": This effectively means a vital type of intelligence can be isolated during brain damage, to ensure survival.
# "it's place in evolutionary history": The prioritization of isolating and protecting a vital intelligence can be the result of evolution, to ensure survival.
# "the presence of core operations": Effectively being able to interact with their surrounding through senses.
# "susceptibility to encoding": A system needs to be able to accurately and systematically transfer and receive data.
# "a distinct developmental progression": The ability to learn and accumulate knowledge.
# "the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people": In the category of system there needs to be outliers in both the spectrum of high and low intelligence.
# "support from experimental psychology": The seventh and eighth category both rely on experiments done in studies. One such experiment would be: a person having to hold a conversation while walking and after a few minutes instead of walking they need to solve a crossword puzzle. The first task seems much more plausible, meaning two different types of intelligence are in play. On the other hand, the second task might seem impossible for most, thus the same type of intelligence is used for both tasks.
# "support from psychometric findings": see definition of 7.

If all these criteria applied to an activity, Garner defined it as intelligence. This is how he developed and categorized the ''Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121125220607/http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/mitheory.shtml#outline Howard Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, 1999]</ref>

== Theory of Multiple Intelligences ==

Howard Gardner proposes there to be not just one type of intelligence, but eight:
{| class="wikitable"
|+The Eight Intelligences
!Intelligence
!End-State
!Core Components
|-
|Logical-mathematical
|Scientist
Mathematician
|Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning.
|-
|Linguistic
|Poet
Journalist
|Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language.
|-
|Musical
|Composer
Violinist
|Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness.
|-
|Spatial
|Navigator
Sculptor
|Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions.
|-
|Bodily-kinesthetic
|Dancer
Athlete
|Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully.
|-
|Interpersonal
|Therapist
Salesman
|Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.
|-
|Intrapersonal
|Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge
|Access to one's own feelings and the ability, to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence.
|-
|Naturalistic
|Farmer
Biological Scientist
|Ability to make acute discriminations of flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively.
|}
<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/Gardner1989.pdf Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch, Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1989]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20405529 Howard Gardner, Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages, 1995]</ref>

This revelation shows that intelligence is more complex than a problem that is decided with true or false. Furthermore, a door for criticism towards the educational system is opened. Most systems do not facilitate all types of intelligence equally, nearly neglecting some. One should also note that consciousness is not a necessity for intelligence to exist, as it is only the result of a strong intrapersonal intelligence.
== Different "beings" with Intelligence ==
Generally, we link intelligence with a ''living'' [[being]]. Nonetheless, thinkers like Turing suggest the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] - a ''non-living'' [[being]]. The fact that something can be considered a [[being]] while not being alive can be well explained by combining the idea of Plotinus and Gardner. Plotinus linked existence to the act of thinking, while Gardner defines thinking with his core components. Thus, anything that is able to successfully execute these components, one should be able to consider it a [[being]]. In conclusion, the moment anything or system shows forms intelligence one can define it as a [[being]] - living, non-living, or artificial.

== Testing for Intelligence ==
Having defined intelligence and its spectrum. Leaves the questions of "How to measure intelligence?" open. Over the course of history many tests have been developed. These tests have been generalized to three different beings, to account for different features of the different systems. For example, the spatial intelligence of a wild animal will be much better than that of an AI that helps translate languages. It would not make sense to test them with the same criteria.

=== Human Intelligence ===
In the beginning these tests served the goal of identifying people with mental illnesses to be able to help them. The first practical test was published by Alfred Bignet in 1903: The Bignet test. Later, in 1912, William Stern dubbed the measurement unit of intelligence as the "Intelligence Quotient" (IQ). A few years after, in 1923, Charles Spearman proposed the idea of the "g factor" (g), standing for general intelligence factor. Both the IQ and the g represent the general cognitive ability; however, the g is mathematical construct that represents how a person performs similar on different cognitive tasks. While the IQ only measures the person's ability. Additionally, to the g factor, which was is a constant throughout all subjects, there is the "s factor" which can affect the g positively or negatively, depending on the subject. The s factor could be improved by training in a given subject. Much later, in 1963, the g factor was split up by Raymond Cattell's concept of fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). gf is the form of intelligence when one learns new information or is presented with an unknown problem, while gc is the form of intelligence that uses already previous knowledge to solve problems. During a person's life, gc increases until the thirties and then basically plateaus. gf, on the other hand peaks in the thirties and then drops off in a linear manner. <ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/psy_0003-5033_1907_num_14_1_3737 Binet et Simon, Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants, 1907]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=D6h9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 William Stern, The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Volume 1, 1914]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_intelligence_and_the_Princ/xv4MAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 Charles Spearman, The nature of "intelligence" and the principles of cognition, 1923]

</ref><ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613486487?journalCode=pssa Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The Stability of Intelligence From Age 11 to Age 90 Years: The Lothian Birth Cohort of 1921. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2361-2368]</ref>

Another interesting observation is the "Flynn effect". It discerns the growth of the IQ of humanity over the course of time. In the past 100 years it rose by nearly 30 points. This trend was noticed, as the IQ tests get normalized every few years to keep a bell curve centered on the IQ of 100. The causes are yet to be determined for sure, however this suggests that humanity is becoming more intelligent with education and choice of work; As both education become more common in the last century and the fields of work have gotten more challenging on a mental level.<ref>[https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/mason/readings/flynn-IQgains-psychbul-1987.pdf James R. Flynn, Massive IQ Gain in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure?, 1987]</ref>

These tests are a decent generalization of some of Gardners intelligences, but several ones were unaccounted for. Resulting in the development of other tests. One such test is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEI). This test, first published in 2002, checks for one's emotional intelligence (EQ), which accounts for the inter- and intrapersonal intelligence that the IQ test fully neglects.<ref>[http://www.cjwolfe.com/MSCEIT%20Resource%20Report.pdf David R. Caruso, Resource Report: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test™, 2004]</ref>

=== Animal Intelligence ===
Humans have realized to be superior to animals in most forms of intelligence many centuries ago. We observed them as a basic form of intelligence for us humans. Thus, making them a great subject of ethical experimentation. This way the results could potentially be transferred from the animals to us humans. The main testing of intelligence is of behavioristic manner and mainly determines how fast an animal can achieve a given goal and make mental associations. This research is very important as it helps us develop our knowledge of neurology and psychology. A great example of psychology is the idea of classical conditioning. And for the aspect of neurology, the aspect of being able to associate certain brain regions to given behavior or actions is a superb example.

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

As previously mentioned, Turing developed the [[Turing test]]. This test is often used to check the intelligence level of [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]]. A great example is that an [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] beat a human in GO, a very complex board game.

However, [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] are usually very specialized, making them really intelligent in one specific task, while having abysmally low intelligence in almost every other aspect.

== Conclusion ==

Intelligence is the essence of existence. Intelligence can be displayed in at least eight different attributes, mentioned in Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Furthermore, each intelligence can be split once more, into a crystallized and fluid part. Resulting in a range of sixteen different intelligences. All these intelligences help a being overcome any kind of problem. The higher the given intelligence, the faster one comes to a solution.

Over the course of one's existence one chooses, by necessity or free will, what types of intelligence to pursue and thus strengthen. On this journey, one can also help educate others and thus promote the intelligence of others and indirectly pass on one's intelligence to others. By doing so, one helps increase the general intelligence of all beings.

Finally, one can agree with Diogenes of Appolonia's recommendation to seek out an intelligent life. All core components of the range of intelligence add more complexity to one's existence and thus make it stronger. Subsequently, increasing one’s intelligence is directly correlated to increasing one’s existence. Thus, one can conclude the existence a being has fullended, was experienced more intensley, the more intelligent the being was.

== References ==

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-29T01:06:18Z

Philip Deischl: Finished the article, only leaving proof reading

== Introduction ==
"Intelligence is not to make no mistakes But quickly to see how to make them good." (Bertold Brecht, ''The Decision'' (play), 1930) With this short definition Brecht effectively defines intelligence as the ability to quickly adapt to a new situation.

== Etymology ==

The word intelligence stems from the Latin noun ''intelligentia''. Which translates to "the action or faculty of understanding". It can also be derived from the verb ''intellegere'', meaning "to understand".<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence John Carson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015]</ref> Another definition of ''intellegere'' is "the action of acquiring, processing, and storing of information." <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence Wilma C.M. Resing, in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005]</ref>

Today intelligence is defined as "The faculty of understanding; intellect. Also as a count noun: a mental manifestation of this faculty, a capacity to understand."<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2404969105 ''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. “intelligence (''n.''),” September 2023]</ref> The fact that the meaning of the word has been so well preserved, after having been translated into many languages over the course of several centuries, shows how important it is to the basics of philosophy.

== Definitions throughout History ==

=== Diogenes of Appolonia (~500 BC) ===
Probably one of the earliest definitions in history. He defined intelligence - noesis, in ancient Greek, an intuitive and rational way of thinking that defines and grasps the universe - as air. He thought of neosis as the mind itself, so in a way intelligence is what causes a being's existence. This is also reinforced by his thought of air being inherent to intelligence and that it provides intelligence to beings. He dubbed the provided intelligence as ''air-intelligence''. Over the course of existence living beings also give off air-intelligence and once they run out of it, they die. This way other beings can gain intelligence. Furthermore, he thinks of air of as a divine being - as God -, because he thinks of it as a form of life essence that is all knowing and can express itself in many different forms. Effectively one can think of a soul as a dense version of air-intelligence that. Every being has a soul that is provided by the air and once one passes the soul returns to the greater existence of air, providing intelligence to other souls. Diogenes also explained different forms of intelligence with the five senses. Different beings breathe differently with different amounts of air, resulting in a better or worse perception of their surroundings with, for example, their hearing. This way one can perceive air-intelligence as a kind of medium that transfers information. While the medium also affects the being’s predisposition to receive the information. He also explains pain and pleasure through different concentrations of air in the blood. Stating that when the blood flows well throughout the body, the air is well incorporated in it, but when they repel each other, the blood coagulates - resulting in pain. On top of that, the different levels of intelligence are a result of the different qualities of air. The more damp the air is, the lower the intelligence of the creates. He proclaims that in order to become more intelligent, and to live a good life, one needs to seek out warm, dry, and swift air, and to let it permeate one’s body. Finally, he also explains fertilization via air-intelligence. The sperm is provided with air through the blood and thus it instills intelligence into a new being. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/diogenes-of-apollonia/#H4 Jason Dockstader, Diogenes of Apollonia (5th cn. B.C.E.)]</ref>

=== Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) ===
The founder of the school of stoicism. One of his believes was that practical intelligence (PI) is a form of understanding ones surrounding. PI is the root to living well, a virtue, and wisdom. It is always good. Thus, living well usually includes PI. Conclusively, the wiser one becomes the better life choices one makes; hence, their life becomes better. Another conclusion one can get from this definition is that intelligence is the basis of morality. Without intelligence one would just follow their instincts and ignore the needs of other beings. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/a-ethics/ Clerk Shaw, Ancient Ethics]</ref>

=== Plotonius (204-270 AD) ===
The founder of Neoplatonism. His definition of intelligence was part of his definition of spiritual cosmology. All living beings emanate from three elements: The One, the Intelligence, and the Soul. The One's existence is independent of the Intelligence and the Soul, while also being their foundation. The Intelligence or Mind (Nous) is the source of being. It can be seen as the consciousness of the One. Plotonius once stated: "to think and to be are one and the same” (V.9.5; Parmenides, fragment 3). This is an important step in cognitive philosophy, as it starts to define what it means to exist. The Soul is entangled with the Intelligence, and it materializes and extends the spiritual actions of the mind. In a way the One can be seen as the imaginary space where the Intelligence, the mind, takes place. Meanwhile the Soul is the body that executes the actions the mind wants to achieve. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/plotinus/#SH2b Edward Moore, Plotinus (204—270 C.E.)]</ref>

=== Alan Turing (1912-1954 AD) ===
He was probably the first cognitivist, as he defined the basic logic of how data is received, processed, organized, and stored. However, he also created one of the best thought experiments to describe behaviorism: The [[Turing test]]. In behaviorism intelligence is not defined by thoughts - the mind -, but by actions of the being. The path of logic, of how the being came to this action, is irrelevant, only the result, the action, matters. In his thought experiment, Turing basically states, if a machine can come to the same results of a given problem as a human can, one can infer that the machine is intelligent. As it imitated the human’s behavior successfully, and a human is intelligent. Hence, Turing's definition of intelligence is the ability to come to an intelligent solution to any given problem. This definition opened the door to the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]].<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/#SSH1a.ii Larry Hauser, Behaviorism]</ref>

=== Howard Gardner (b.1943 AD) ===
Gardner defined the existence of intelligence with eight criteria:

# "the potential for brain isolation by brain damage": This effectively means a vital type of intelligence can be isolated during brain damage, to ensure survival.
# "it's place in evolutionary history": The prioritization of isolating and protecting a vital intelligence can be the result of evolution, to ensure survival.
# "the presence of core operations": Effectively being able to interact with their surrounding through senses.
# "susceptibility to encoding": A system needs to be able to accurately and systematically transfer and receive data.
# "a distinct developmental progression": The ability to learn and accumulate knowledge.
# "the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people": In the category of system there needs to be outliers in both the spectrum of high and low intelligence.
# "support from experimental psychology": The seventh and eighth category both rely on experiments done in studies. One such experiment would be: a person having to hold a conversation while walking and after a few minutes instead of walking they need to solve a crossword puzzle. The first task seems much more plausible, meaning two different types of intelligence are in play. On the other hand, the second task might seem impossible for most, thus the same type of intelligence is used for both tasks.
# "support from psychometric findings": see definition of 7.

If all these criteria applied to an activity, Garner defined it as intelligence. This is how he developed and categorized the ''Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121125220607/http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/mitheory.shtml#outline Howard Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, 1999]</ref>

== Theory of Multiple Intelligences ==

Howard Gardner proposes there to be not just one type of intelligence, but eight:
{| class="wikitable"
|+The Eight Intelligences
!Intelligence
!End-State
!Core Components
|-
|Logical-mathematical
|Scientist
Mathematician
|Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning.
|-
|Linguistic
|Poet
Journalist
|Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language.
|-
|Musical
|Composer
Violinist
|Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness.
|-
|Spatial
|Navigator
Sculptor
|Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions.
|-
|Bodily-kinesthetic
|Dancer
Athlete
|Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully.
|-
|Interpersonal
|Therapist
Salesman
|Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.
|-
|Intrapersonal
|Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge
|Access to one's own feelings and the ability, to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence.
|-
|Naturalistic
|Farmer
Biological Scientist
|Ability to make acute discriminations of flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively.
|}
<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/Gardner1989.pdf Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch, Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1989]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20405529 Howard Gardner, Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages, 1995]</ref>

This revelation shows that intelligence is more complex than a problem that is decided with true or false. Furthermore, a door for criticism towards the educational system is opened. Most systems do not facilitate all types of intelligence equally, nearly neglecting some. One should also note that consciousness is not a necessity for intelligence to exist, as it is only the result of a strong intrapersonal intelligence.
== Different "beings" with Intelligence ==
Generally, we link intelligence with a ''living'' [[being]]. Nonetheless, thinkers like Turing suggest the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] - a ''non-living'' [[being]]. The fact that something can be considered a [[being]] while not being alive can be well explained by combining the idea of Plotinus and Gardner. Plotinus linked existence to the act of thinking, while Gardner defines thinking with his core components. Thus, anything that is able to successfully execute these components, one should be able to consider it a [[being]]. In conclusion, the moment anything or system shows forms intelligence one can define it as a [[being]] - living, non-living, or artificial.

== Testing for Intelligence ==
Having defined intelligence and its spectrum. Leaves the questions of "How to measure intelligence?" open. Over the course of history many tests have been developed. These tests have been generalized to three different beings, to account for different features of the different systems. For example, the spatial intelligence of a wild animal will be much better than that of an AI that helps translate languages. It would not make sense to test them with the same criteria.

=== Human Intelligence ===
In the beginning these tests served the goal of identifying people with mental illnesses to be able to help them. The first practical test was published by Alfred Bignet in 1903: The Bignet test. Later, in 1912, William Stern dubbed the measurement unit of intelligence as the "Intelligence Quotient" (IQ). A few years after, in 1923, Charles Spearman proposed the idea of the "g factor" (g), standing for general intelligence factor. Both the IQ and the g represent the general cognitive ability; however, the g is mathematical construct that represents how a person performs similar on different cognitive tasks. While the IQ only measures the person's ability. Additionally, to the g factor, which was is a constant throughout all subjects, there is the "s factor" which can affect the g positively or negatively, depending on the subject. The s factor could be improved by training in a given subject. Much later, in 1963, the g factor was split up by Raymond Cattell's concept of fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). gf is the form of intelligence when one learns new information or is presented with an unknown problem, while gc is the form of intelligence that uses already previous knowledge to solve problems. During a person's life, gc increases until the thirties and then basically plateaus. gf, on the other hand peaks in the thirties and then drops off in a linear manner. <ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/psy_0003-5033_1907_num_14_1_3737 Binet et Simon, Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants, 1907]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=D6h9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 William Stern, The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Volume 1, 1914]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_intelligence_and_the_Princ/xv4MAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 Charles Spearman, The nature of "intelligence" and the principles of cognition, 1923]

</ref><ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613486487?journalCode=pssa Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The Stability of Intelligence From Age 11 to Age 90 Years: The Lothian Birth Cohort of 1921. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2361-2368]</ref>

These tests are a decent generalization of some of Gardners intelligences, but several ones were unaccounted for. Resulting in the development of other tests. One such test is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEI). This test, first published in 2002, checks for one's emotional intelligence (EQ), which accounts for the inter- and intrapersonal intelligence that the IQ test fully neglects.<ref>[http://www.cjwolfe.com/MSCEIT%20Resource%20Report.pdf David R. Caruso, Resource Report: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test™, 2004]</ref>

=== Animal Intelligence ===
Humans have realized to be superior to animals in most forms of intelligence many centuries ago. We observed them as a basic form of intelligence for us humans. Thus, making them a great subject of ethical experimentation. This way the results could potentially be transferred from the animals to us humans. The main testing of intelligence is of behavioristic manner and mainly determines how fast an animal can achieve a given goal and make mental associations. This research is very important as it helps us develop our knowledge of neurology and psychology. A great example of psychology is the idea of classical conditioning. And for the aspect of neurology, the aspect of being able to associate certain brain regions to given behavior or actions is a superb example.

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

As previously mentioned, Turing developed the [[Turing test]]. This test is often used to check the intelligence level of [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]]. A great example is that an [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] beat a human in GO, a very complex board game.

However, [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] are usually very specialized, making them really intelligent in one specific task, while having abysmally low intelligence in almost every other aspect.

== Conclusion ==

Intelligence is the essence of existence. Intelligence can be displayed in at least eight different attributes, mentioned in Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Furthermore, each intelligence can be split once more, into a crystallized and fluid part. Resulting in a range of sixteen different intelligences.

Over the course of one's existence one chooses, by necessity or free will, what types of intelligence to pursue and thus strengthen. On this journey, one can also help educate others and thus promote the intelligence of others and indirectly pass on one's intelligence to others. By doing this, one helps increase the general intelligence of all beings.

Finally, one can agree with Diogenes of Appolonia's recommendation to seek out an intelligent life. All core components of the range of intelligence add more complexity to one's existence and thus make it stronger. Subsequently, increasing one’s intelligence is directly correlated to increasing one’s existence. Thus, one can conclude the existence one has fullended, was experienced more detailed, the more intelligent one was.

== References ==

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-28T23:49:48Z

Philip Deischl: Added the rest of the article, only missing the conclusion

== Introduction ==
"Intelligence is not to make no mistakes But quickly to see how to make them good." (Bertold Brecht, ''The Decision'' (play), 1930) With this short definition Brecht effectively defines intelligence as the ability to quickly adapt to a new situation.

== Etymology ==

The word intelligence stems from the Latin noun ''intelligentia''. Which translates to "the action or faculty of understanding". It can also be derived from the verb ''intellegere'', meaning "to understand".<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence John Carson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015]</ref> Another definition of ''intellegere'' is "the action of acquiring, processing, and storing of information." <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence Wilma C.M. Resing, in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005]</ref>

Today intelligence is defined as "The faculty of understanding; intellect. Also as a count noun: a mental manifestation of this faculty, a capacity to understand."<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2404969105 ''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. “intelligence (''n.''),” September 2023]</ref> The fact that the meaning of the word has been so well preserved, after having been translated into many languages over the course of several centuries, shows how important it is to the basics of philosophy.

== Definitions throughout History ==

=== Diogenes of Appolonia (~500 BC) ===
Probably one of the earliest definitions in history. He defined intelligence - noesis, in ancient Greek, an intuitive and rational way of thinking that defines and grasps the universe - as air. He thought of neosis as the mind itself, so in a way intelligence is what causes a being's existence. This is also reinforced by his thought of air being inherent to intelligence and that it provides intelligence to beings. He dubbed the provided intelligence as ''air-intelligence''. Over the course of existence living beings also give off air-intelligence and once they run out of it, they die. This way other beings can gain intelligence. Furthermore, he thinks of air of as a divine being - as God -, because he thinks of it as a form of life essence that is all knowing and can express itself in many different forms. Effectively one can think of a soul as a dense version of air-intelligence that. Every being has a soul that is provided by the air and once one passes the soul returns to the greater existence of air, providing intelligence to other souls. Diogenes also explained different forms of intelligence with the five senses. Different beings breathe differently with different amounts of air, resulting in a better or worse perception of their surroundings with, for example, their hearing. This way one can perceive air-intelligence as a kind of medium that transfers information. While the medium also affects the being’s predisposition to receive the information. He also explains pain and pleasure through different concentrations of air in the blood. Stating that when the blood flows well throughout the body, the air is well incorporated in it, but when they repel each other, the blood coagulates - resulting in pain. On top of that, the different levels of intelligence are a result of the different qualities of air. The more damp the air is, the lower the intelligence of the creates. He proclaims that in order to become more intelligent, and to live a good life, one needs to seek out warm, dry, and swift air, and to let it permeate one’s body. Finally, he also explains fertilization via air-intelligence. The sperm is provided with air through the blood and thus it instills intelligence into a new being. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/diogenes-of-apollonia/#H4 Jason Dockstader, Diogenes of Apollonia (5th cn. B.C.E.)]</ref>

=== Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) ===
The founder of the school of stoicism. One of his believes was that practical intelligence (PI) is a form of understanding ones surrounding. PI is the root to living well, a virtue, and wisdom. It is always good. Thus, living well usually includes PI. Conclusively, the wiser one becomes the better life choices one makes; hence, their life becomes better. Another conclusion one can get from this definition is that intelligence is the basis of morality. Without intelligence one would just follow their instincts and ignore the needs of other beings. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/a-ethics/ Clerk Shaw, Ancient Ethics]</ref>

=== Plotonius (204-270 AD) ===
The founder of Neoplatonism. His definition of intelligence was part of his definition of spiritual cosmology. All living beings emanate from three elements: The One, the Intelligence, and the Soul. The One's existence is independent of the Intelligence and the Soul, while also being their foundation. The Intelligence or Mind (Nous) is the source of being. It can be seen as the consciousness of the One. Plotonius once stated: "to think and to be are one and the same” (V.9.5; Parmenides, fragment 3). This is an important step in cognitive philosophy, as it starts to define what it means to exist. The Soul is entangled with the Intelligence, and it materializes and extends the spiritual actions of the mind. In a way the One can be seen as the imaginary space where the Intelligence, the mind, takes place. Meanwhile the Soul is the body that executes the actions the mind wants to achieve. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/plotinus/#SH2b Edward Moore, Plotinus (204—270 C.E.)]</ref>

=== Alan Turing (1912-1954 AD) ===
He was probably the first cognitivist, as he defined the basic logic of how data is received, processed, organized, and stored. However, he also created one of the best thought experiments to describe behaviorism: The [[Turing test]]. In behaviorism intelligence is not defined by thoughts - the mind -, but by actions of the being. The path of logic, of how the being came to this action, is irrelevant, only the result, the action, matters. In his thought experiment, Turing basically states, if a machine can come to the same results of a given problem as a human can, one can infer that the machine is intelligent. As it imitated the human’s behavior successfully, and a human is intelligent. Hence, Turing's definition of intelligence is the ability to come to an intelligent solution to any given problem. This definition opened the door to the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]].<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/#SSH1a.ii Larry Hauser, Behaviorism]</ref>

=== Howard Gardner (b.1943 AD) ===
Gardner defined the existence of intelligence with eight criteria:

# "the potential for brain isolation by brain damage": This effectively means a vital type of intelligence can be isolated during brain damage, to ensure survival.
# "it's place in evolutionary history": The prioritization of isolating and protecting a vital intelligence can be the result of evolution, to ensure survival.
# "the presence of core operations": Effectively being able to interact with their surrounding through senses.
# "susceptibility to encoding": A system needs to be able to accurately and systematically transfer and receive data.
# "a distinct developmental progression": The ability to learn and accumulate knowledge.
# "the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people": In the category of system there needs to be outliers in both the spectrum of high and low intelligence.
# "support from experimental psychology": The seventh and eighth category both rely on experiments done in studies. One such experiment would be: a person having to hold a conversation while walking and after a few minutes instead of walking they need to solve a crossword puzzle. The first task seems much more plausible, meaning two different types of intelligence are in play. On the other hand, the second task might seem impossible for most, thus the same type of intelligence is used for both tasks.
# "support from psychometric findings": see definition of 7.

If all these criteria applied to an activity, Garner defined it as intelligence. This is how he developed and categorized the ''Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121125220607/http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/mitheory.shtml#outline Howard Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, 1999]</ref>

== Theory of Multiple Intelligences ==

Howard Gardner proposes there to be not just one type of intelligence, but eight:
{| class="wikitable"
|+The Eight Intelligences
!Intelligence
!End-State
!Core Components
|-
|Logical-mathematical
|Scientist
Mathematician
|Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning.
|-
|Linguistic
|Poet
Journalist
|Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language.
|-
|Musical
|Composer
Violinist
|Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness.
|-
|Spatial
|Navigator
Sculptor
|Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions.
|-
|Bodily-kinesthetic
|Dancer
Athlete
|Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully.
|-
|Interpersonal
|Therapist
Salesman
|Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.
|-
|Intrapersonal
|Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge
|Access to one's own feelings and the ability, to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence.
|-
|Naturalistic
|Farmer
Biological Scientist
|Ability to make acute discriminations of flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively.
|}
<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/Gardner1989.pdf Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch, Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1989]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20405529 Howard Gardner, Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages, 1995]</ref>

This revelation shows that intelligence is more complex than a problem that is decided with true or false. Furthermore, a door for criticism towards the educational system is opened. Most systems do not facilitate all types of intelligence equally, nearly neglecting some.
== Different "beings" with Intelligence ==
Generally, we link intelligence with a ''living'' [[being]]. Nonetheless, thinkers like Turing suggest the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] - a ''non-living'' [[being]]. The fact that something can be considered a [[being]] while not being alive can be well explained by combining the idea of Plotinus and Gardner. Plotinus linked existence to the act of thinking, while Gardner defines thinking with his core components. Thus, anything that is able to successfully execute these components, one should be able to consider it a [[being]]. In conclusion, the moment anything or system shows forms intelligence one can define it as a [[being]] - living, non-living, or artificial.

== Testing for Intelligence ==
Having defined intelligence and its spectrum. Leaves the questions of "How to measure intelligence?" open. Over the course of history many tests have been developed. These tests have been generalized to three different beings, to account for different features of the different systems. For example, the spatial intelligence of a wild animal will be much better than that of an AI that helps translate languages. It would not make sense to test them with the same criteria.

=== Human Intelligence ===
In the beginning these tests served the goal of identifying people with mental illnesses to be able to help them. The first practical test was published by Alfred Bignet in 1903: The Bignet test. Later, in 1912, William Stern dubbed the measurement unit of intelligence as the "Intelligence Quotient" (IQ). A few years after, in 1923, Charles Spearman proposed the idea of the "g factor" (g), standing for general intelligence factor. Both the IQ and the g represent the general cognitive ability; however, the g is mathematical construct that represents how a person performs similar on different cognitive tasks. While the IQ only measures the person's ability. Additionally, to the g factor, which was is a constant throughout all subjects, there is the "s factor" which can affect the g positively or negatively, depending on the subject. The s factor could be improved by training in a given subject. Much later, in 1963, the g factor was split up by Raymond Cattell's concept of fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). gf is the form of intelligence when one learns new information or is presented with an unknown problem, while gc is the form of intelligence that uses already previous knowledge to solve problems. During a person's life, gc increases until the thirties and then basically plateaus. gf, on the other hand peaks in the thirties and then drops off in a linear manner. <ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/psy_0003-5033_1907_num_14_1_3737 Binet et Simon, Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants, 1907]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=D6h9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 William Stern, The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Volume 1, 1914]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_intelligence_and_the_Princ/xv4MAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 Charles Spearman, The nature of "intelligence" and the principles of cognition, 1923]

</ref><ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613486487?journalCode=pssa Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The Stability of Intelligence From Age 11 to Age 90 Years: The Lothian Birth Cohort of 1921. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2361-2368]</ref>

These tests are a decent generalization of some of Gardners intelligences, but several ones were unaccounted for. Resulting in the development of other tests. One such test is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEI). This test, first published in 2002, checks for one's emotional intelligence (EQ), which accounts for the inter- and intrapersonal intelligence that the IQ test fully neglects.<ref>[http://www.cjwolfe.com/MSCEIT%20Resource%20Report.pdf David R. Caruso, Resource Report: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test™, 2004]</ref>

=== Animal Intelligence ===
Humans have realized to be superior to animals in most forms of intelligence many centuries ago. We observed them as a basic form of intelligence for us humans. Thus, making them a great subject of ethical experimentation. This way the results could potentially be transferred from the animals to us humans. The main testing of intelligence is of behavioristic manner and mainly determines how fast an animal can achieve a given goal and make mental associations. This research is very important as it helps us develop our knowledge of neurology and psychology. A great example of psychology is the idea of classical conditioning. And for the aspect of neurology, the aspect of being able to associate certain brain regions to given behavior or actions is a superb example.

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

As previously mentioned, Turing developed the [[Turing test]]. This test is often used to check the intelligence level of [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]]. A great example is that an [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] beat a human in GO, a very complex board game.

However, [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] is usually very specialized, making them really intelligent in one specific task, while having abysmally low intelligence in almost every other aspect.

== Conclusion ==

== References ==

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-28T23:10:47Z

Philip Deischl: Addition of further articles and slight correction of a previous addition

== Introduction ==
"Intelligence is not to make no mistakes But quickly to see how to make them good." (Bertold Brecht, ''The Decision'' (play), 1930) With this short definition Brecht effectively defines intelligence as the ability to quickly adapt to a new situation.

== Etymology ==

The word intelligence stems from the Latin noun ''intelligentia''. Which translates to "the action or faculty of understanding". It can also be derived from the verb ''intellegere'', meaning "to understand".<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence John Carson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015]</ref> Another definition of ''intellegere'' is "the action of acquiring, processing, and storing of information." <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/concept-of-intelligence Wilma C.M. Resing, in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005]</ref>

Today intelligence is defined as "The faculty of understanding; intellect. Also as a count noun: a mental manifestation of this faculty, a capacity to understand."<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2404969105 ''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. “intelligence (''n.''),” September 2023]</ref> The fact that the meaning of the word has been so well preserved, after having been translated into many languages over the course of several centuries, shows how important it is to the basics of philosophy.

== Definitions throughout History ==

=== Diogenes of Appolonia (~500 BC) ===
Probably one of the earliest definitions in history. He defined intelligence - noesis, in ancient Greek, an intuitive and rational way of thinking that defines and grasps the universe - as air. He thought of neosis as the mind itself, so in a way intelligence is what causes a being's existence. This is also reinforced by his thought of air being inherent to intelligence and that it provides intelligence to beings. He dubbed the provided intelligence as ''air-intelligence''. Over the course of existence living beings also give off air-intelligence and once they run out of it, they die. This way other beings can gain intelligence. Furthermore, he thinks of air of as a divine being - as God -, because he thinks of it as a form of life essence that is all knowing and can express itself in many different forms. Effectively one can think of a soul as a dense version of air-intelligence that. Every being has a soul that is provided by the air and once one passes the soul returns to the greater existence of air, providing intelligence to other souls. Diogenes also explained different forms of intelligence with the five senses. Different beings breathe differently with different amounts of air, resulting in a better or worse perception of their surroundings with, for example, their hearing. This way one can perceive air-intelligence as a kind of medium that transfers information. While the medium also affects the being’s predisposition to receive the information. He also explains pain and pleasure through different concentrations of air in the blood. Stating that when the blood flows well throughout the body, the air is well incorporated in it, but when they repel each other, the blood coagulates - resulting in pain. On top of that, the different levels of intelligence are a result of the different qualities of air. The more damp the air is, the lower the intelligence of the creates. He proclaims that in order to become more intelligent, and to live a good life, one needs to seek out warm, dry, and swift air, and to let it permeate one’s body. Finally, he also explains fertilization via air-intelligence. The sperm is provided with air through the blood and thus it instills intelligence into a new being. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/diogenes-of-apollonia/#H4 Jason Dockstader, Diogenes of Apollonia (5th cn. B.C.E.)]</ref>

=== Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) ===
The founder of the school of stoicism. One of his believes was that practical intelligence (PI) is a form of understanding ones surrounding. PI is the root to living well, a virtue, and wisdom. It is always good. Thus, living well usually includes PI. Conclusively, the wiser one becomes the better life choices one makes; hence, their life becomes better. Another conclusion one can get from this definition is that intelligence is the basis of morality. Without intelligence one would just follow their instincts and ignore the needs of other beings. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/a-ethics/ Clerk Shaw, Ancient Ethics]</ref>

=== Plotonius (204-270 AD) ===
The founder of Neoplatonism. His definition of intelligence was part of his definition of spiritual cosmology. All living beings emanate from three elements: The One, the Intelligence, and the Soul. The One's existence is independent of the Intelligence and the Soul, while also being their foundation. The Intelligence or Mind (Nous) is the source of being. It can be seen as the consciousness of the One. Plotonius once stated: "to think and to be are one and the same” (V.9.5; Parmenides, fragment 3). This is an important step in cognitive philosophy, as it starts to define what it means to exist. The Soul is entangled with the Intelligence, and it materializes and extends the spiritual actions of the mind. In a way the One can be seen as the imaginary space where the Intelligence, the mind, takes place. Meanwhile the Soul is the body that executes the actions the mind wants to achieve. <ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/plotinus/#SH2b Edward Moore, Plotinus (204—270 C.E.)]</ref>

=== Alan Turing (1912-1954 AD) ===
He was probably the first cognitivist, as he defined the basic logic of how data is received, processed, organized, and stored. However, he also created one of the best thought experiments to describe behaviorism: The [[Turing test]]. In behaviorism intelligence is not defined by thoughts - the mind -, but by actions of the being. The path of logic, of how the being came to this action, is irrelevant, only the result, the action, matters. In his thought experiment, Turing basically states, if a machine can come to the same results of a given problem as a human can, one can infer that the machine is intelligent. As it imitated the human’s behavior successfully, and a human is intelligent. Hence, Turing's definition of intelligence is the ability to come to an intelligent solution to any given problem. This definition opened the door to the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]].<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/#SSH1a.ii Larry Hauser, Behaviorism]</ref>

=== Howard Gardner (b.1943 AD) ===
Gardner defined the existence of intelligence with eight criteria:

# "the potential for brain isolation by brain damage": This effectively means a vital type of intelligence can be isolated during brain damage, to ensure survival.
# "it's place in evolutionary history": The prioritization of isolating and protecting a vital intelligence can be the result of evolution, to ensure survival.
# "the presence of core operations": Effectively being able to interact with their surrounding through senses.
# "susceptibility to encoding": A system needs to be able to accurately and systematically transfer and receive data.
# "a distinct developmental progression": The ability to learn and accumulate knowledge.
# "the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people": In the category of system there needs to be outliers in both the spectrum of high and low intelligence.
# "support from experimental psychology": The seventh and eighth category both rely on experiments done in studies. One such experiment would be: a person having to hold a conversation while walking and after a few minutes instead of walking they need to solve a crossword puzzle. The first task seems much more plausible, meaning two different types of intelligence are in play. On the other hand, the second task might seem impossible for most, thus the same type of intelligence is used for both tasks.
# "support from psychometric findings": see definition of 7.

If all these criteria applied to an activity, Garner defined it as intelligence. This is how he developed and categorized the ''Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121125220607/http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/mitheory.shtml#outline Howard Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, 1999]</ref>

== Theory of Multiple Intelligences ==

Howard Gardner proposes there to be not just one type of intelligence, but eight:
{| class="wikitable"
|+The Eight Intelligences
!Intelligence
!End-State
!Core Components
|-
|Logical-mathematical
|Scientist
Mathematician
|Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning.
|-
|Linguistic
|Poet
Journalist
|Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language.
|-
|Musical
|Composer
Violinist
|Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness.
|-
|Spatial
|Navigator
Sculptor
|Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions.
|-
|Bodily-kinesthetic
|Dancer
Athlete
|Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully.
|-
|Interpersonal
|Therapist
Salesman
|Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.
|-
|Intrapersonal
|Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge
|Access to one's own feelings and the ability, to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence.
|-
|Naturalistic
|Farmer
Biological Scientist
|Ability to make acute discriminations of flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively.
|}
<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/Gardner1989.pdf Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch, Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1989]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20405529 Howard Gardner, Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages, 1995]</ref>

This revelation shows that intelligence is more complex than a problem that is decided with true or false. Furthermore, a door for criticism towards the educational system is opened. Most systems do not facilitate all types of intelligence equally, nearly neglecting some.
== Different "beings" with Intelligence ==
Generally, we link intelligence with a ''living'' [[being]]. Nonetheless, thinkers like Turing suggest the existence of [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] - a ''non-living'' [[being]]. The fact that something can be considered a [[being]] while not being alive can be well explained by combining the idea of Plotinus and Gardner. Plotinus linked existence to the act of thinking, while Gardner defines thinking with his core components. Thus, anything that is able to successfully execute these components, one should be able to consider it a [[being]]. In conclusion, the moment anything or system shows forms intelligence one can define it as a [[being]] - living, non-living, or artificial.

== Testing for Intelligence ==
Having defined intelligence and its spectrum. Leaves the questions of "How to measure intelligence?" open. Over the course of history many tests have been developed. These tests have been generalized to three different beings, to account for different features of the different systems. For example, the spatial intelligence of a wild animal will be much better than that of an AI that helps translate languages. It would not make sense to test them with the same criteria.

=== Human Intelligence ===
In the beginning these tests served the goal of identifying people with mental illnesses to be able to help them. The first practical test was published by Alfred Bignet in 1903: The Bignet test. Later, in 1912, William Stern dubbed the measurement unit of intelligence as the "Intelligence Quotient" (IQ). A few years after, in 1923, Charles Spearman proposed the idea of the "g factor" (g), standing for general intelligence factor. Both the IQ and the g represent the general cognitive ability; however, the g is mathematical construct that represents how a person performs similar on different cognitive tasks. While the IQ only measures the person's ability. Additionally, to the g factor, which was is a constant throughout all subjects, there is the "s factor" which can affect the g positively or negatively, depending on the subject. The s factor could be improved by training in a given subject. Much later, in 1963, the g factor was split up by Raymond Cattell's concept of fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). gf is the form of intelligence when one learns new information or is presented with an unknown problem, while gc is the form of intelligence that uses already previous knowledge to solve problems. During a person's life, gc increases until the thirties and then basically plateaus. gf, on the other hand peaks in the thirties and then drops off in a linear manner. <ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/psy_0003-5033_1907_num_14_1_3737 Binet et Simon, Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants, 1907]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=D6h9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 William Stern, The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Volume 1, 1914]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_intelligence_and_the_Princ/xv4MAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 Charles Spearman, The nature of "intelligence" and the principles of cognition, 1923]

</ref><ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613486487?journalCode=pssa Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The Stability of Intelligence From Age 11 to Age 90 Years: The Lothian Birth Cohort of 1921. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2361-2368]</ref>

These tests are a decent generalization of some of Gardners intelligences, but several ones were unaccounted for. Resulting in the development of other tests. One such test is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEI). This test, first published in 2002, checks for one's emotional intelligence (EQ), which accounts for the inter- and intrapersonal intelligence that the IQ test fully neglects.<ref>[http://www.cjwolfe.com/MSCEIT%20Resource%20Report.pdf David R. Caruso, Resource Report: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test™, 2004]</ref>

=== Animal Intelligence ===

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

== Conclusion ==

== References ==

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-28T11:17:11Z

Philip Deischl: Major addition to the article: finished History and Theory of MI parts

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-28T08:21:40Z

Philip Deischl: Further progress: a new paragraph, view revisions of previous text, slight restructuring of page, added notes for imminent edits

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-28T07:04:03Z

Philip Deischl: first big addition to the article

Draft:Intelligence

2023-12-28T04:20:28Z

Philip Deischl: Rough outline and beginning of article

== Introduction ==
"Intelligence is not to make no mistakes But quickly to see how to make them good." (Bertold Brecht, 1930) With this short definition Brecht effectively defines intelligence as the ability to quickly adapt to a new situations.

== Etymology ==

== Different Definitions throughout History ==

=== Ancient Ethics ===
generic

Plotonius:

Diogenes of Appolonia:

=== Behaviorism ===

Watson:

Thorndike:

Turing:

=== Multiple Intelligence Theory ===
Gardner

=== Modern Dictionary ===
1.

2.

== Different Forms of Intelligence ==

== Different "Lifeforms" with Intelligence ==

=== Natural Intelligence ===

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

== Testing for Intelligence ==

=== Human Intelligence ===

=== Animal Intelligence ===

=== Artificial Intelligence ===

== Conclusion ==

== References ==

Draft:Information society (preliminary)

2023-12-28T02:19:55Z

Philip Deischl: My definition of information age and opinion on information management

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitios one can hold about the ''information society'' concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of political philosophy in the information age. The question "what is information society?" is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarifications_about_"Utopias_and_the_Information_Society"|"From Ancient Utopias to Cyberutopias. An introduction to political philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and ammend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==
'''The Information society''' is to be understood as a society which is defined by their usage, storage and even manipulation of Information itself.

Main driver of this form of society is the advances which are made in the communication technologies as also in the science of Information itself. Therefor, the Society itself is heavily connected or rather the people in this form of Society are connected with each other. Exchanging constantly information.

This can be extremely beneficial as also extremely dangerous on the same time. While Information’s are important and the free distribution of it, helps the society itself to grow – The control of it automatically brings a lot of power to those, which control them.

Supporters of this understanding: [[user:Alexander_Prugger|Alexander Prugger]]

'''Information Society/ Age''' is the era of humanity in which the most important technologies help advance our society via the use of information. Achieving the storage of information in a minimalistic way via the binary number system made it possible to store information in complex electric logic gates. Thus, allowing computers to become one of the most important baselines of our technologies. With this tool processing data in any form became exponentially faster. And this trend is not slowing down.

A great example of this is Moore's Law. This law states that the number of transistors doubles every two years on an integrated circuit <ref>[https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/newsroom/resources/moores-law.html Intel Newsroom, September 18, 2023]</ref>. This effectively means that the growth of processing speed of information is exponential. And this observation has been true for nearly 60 years. Additionally, as the development of quantum processors and computers advances more and more, we may soon have a humongous leap in processing speeds. Not to forget that this ever-increasing information made it possible to create artificial intelligence.

Regarding the '''management of information''': The most common information network is a great tool; it is the world wide web. A platform where everybody can access and spread information within fractions of a second. The main issue with this platform is that the information consists of truths and misinformation forcing the users to crosscheck the information; and most users do not do this as it is too annoying/ they are too lazy. Another big flaw of the system is that people in power can prohibit access of this tool or parts of it. Hence, this tool can be used to manipulate the majority of people very efficiently. Which only gets worse with the fact that an increasing number of people blindly depend on this tool. A further major flaw in our management of information are search engines. They respond poorly to leading questions. Meaning if a person is convinced of their opinion and searches for arguments supporting their opinion, they will most definitely find an argument. Mix this with a bit of ignorance and polarizing headlines on websites and you have the ideal basis for radical people.

Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]]

Talk:Philosophy (preliminary)

2023-12-28T01:19:31Z

Philip Deischl: Added a comment to Alexander's definition and added my generalized definition

I mostly agree with the definition of Alexander. However, I would perhaps generalize his statement to:

Philosophy uses a compilation of truths and knowledge to define and understand the universe and its contents.

As philosophy does not only concern itself with "the great questions of life", but also with the less great ones. Often the simple solutions to a smaller problem can be projected on the bigger issue.

[[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]] 20:18, 27 December 2023 (EST)

Knowledge (preliminary)

2023-12-26T22:40:50Z

Philip Deischl: correcting a spelling mistake

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitions one can hold about the knowledge concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of philosophy in the information age. The question of 'what is knowledge? is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarification_about_"Information,_Knowledge_and_Philosophy"|"A Journey through philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and amend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==
''' Knowledge ''' can be understood as the result of information gathering and the action to preserve it. But also, it can be when you decide to use the information you have heard, seen or learned and transform it into something else.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Vanessa Castro|Vanessa Castro]]

Knowledge is he sum of Information and Experiences. I can know certain stuff, because I observed or felt it – I know for an example that I shouldn’t touch red glowing Metal because, well, its hot, either through the knowledge of Thermodynamics or through the experience that the radiating heat or rather the sensation of it, will become painful at some point.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Alexander Prugger|Alexander Prugger]]
'''Knowledge''' is the ability to store, contextualize, and understand information. An information, for example, could be that "it will thunderstorm tomorrow". By understanding this information and putting it into context, one could realize that tomorrow will not be good weather for outdoor activities.

* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]]

Knowledge (preliminary)

2023-12-26T22:40:18Z

Philip Deischl: spelling mistakes & added my definition

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitions one can hold about the knowledge concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of philosophy in the information age. The question of 'what is knowledge? is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarification_about_"Information,_Knowledge_and_Philosophy"|"A Journey through philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and amend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==
''' Knowledge ''' can be understood as the result of information gathering and the action to preserve it. But also, it can be when you decide to use the information you have heard, seen or learned and transform it into something else.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Vanessa Castro|Vanessa Castro]]

Knowledge is he sum of Information and Experiences. I can know certain stuff, because I observed or felt it – I know for an example that I shouldn’t touch red glowing Metal because, well, its hot, either through the knowledge of Thermodynamics or through the experience that the radiating heat or rather the sensation of it, will become painful at some point.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Alexander Prugger|Alexander Prugger]]
'''Knowledge''' is the ability to store, contextualize, and understand information. An information, for example, could be that "it will thunder storm tomorrow". By understanding this information and putting it into context, one could realize that tomorrow will not be good weather for outdoor activities.

* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]]

Talk:Information (preliminary)

2023-12-26T22:09:55Z

Philip Deischl: I added a comment to Kais Kader's definition of information

Dear Vanessa,

I have difficulties to understand your definition, particularly the part "...an open to..."

[[User:JDíaz|José María Díaz-Nafría]] ([[User talk:JDíaz|talk]]) 21:12, 25 November 2022 (UTC)

I like the aspect of Kais' definition that concerns itself with the increase of information decreases uncertainty. This goes well with entropy and chaos theory. But as his definition continues, I start to disagree with him. He completely disregards any potential disruption (noise) in the transformation of data to information. Furthermore, he states that "knowledge consists of information and therefore is not the same as information.", which I believe to not be a reasonable justification. A number can be part of another number, thus both the individual and the total can be the same.

[[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]] 17:08, 26 December 2023 (EST)

Information (preliminary)

2023-12-26T20:36:34Z

Philip Deischl: Added my personal definition of Information

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitios one can hold about the information concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of philosophy in the information age. The question "what is information?" is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarification_about_"Information,_Knowledge_and_Philosophy"|"A Journey through philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and ammend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==
'''Information''' is a collection of data that has been processed in a meaningful way to meet a specific need. To make it meaningful and useful, it is processed, structured, or presented in a specific context. Information gives data meaning and improves its consistency. It aids in the maintenance of unfavourability and the reduction of uncertainty. As a result, when data is transformed into information, it never contains any irrelevant information. It includes information that is contextual, relevant, and useful. It also entails the manipulation of raw data, which results in the creation of knowledge. As already mentioned, knowledge consists of information and therefore is not the same as information.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Kais Ahmed|Kais Ahmed]]

''' Information ''' can be understood as an open to interpretation input that affects people behavior, which can be physically or visually perceived.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Vanessa Castro|Vanessa Castro]]

Personally, I’d argue that Information is all around us. Because the position of something itself holds already Information. Everything which isn’t complete random or displays some sort of pattern, does convey to some degree information. For an example the orbits of Planets, the wavelengths of light or the amount of O2 in the air. Which would also mean, that if we gather enough information, we could always come to the right conclusion. Or rather find the truth in itself. Although, in regards of this course I’ve learned that Information only becomes Information if somebody is, to formulate it frankly, is informed. Therefore, there has to be some sort of Network at work.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Alexander Prugger|Alexander Prugger]]

'''Information''' is the observation and (at least temporary) storage of data or the transfer of observed data. Hence, the existence of information is dependent on data and some kind of being or machine that observes and stores the data. In most cases the information is objective, however it can also become subjective. Subjective information (can also be called ''misinformation)'' is the result of many different factors. Such as a faulty observation resulting in a person collecting "wrong data". Another factor is the transfer of objective information, also known as ''truths''. During the transfer both the sending party and the receiving party can be the cause of the truth to be corrupted (turning the information into misinformation). As important parts of the information can be left out or not fully perceived. Additionally, information is open for interpretation. Different people have different preconceived opinions on many topics; thus, they interpret information differently. Resulting in different Information and thus, making their perceived information subjective.

* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]]

Talk:Data (preliminary)

2023-12-26T20:02:03Z

Philip Deischl: added, my name, time, and date to my comment

I agree with the idea of Vanessa, that data is factual, and also that it contributes to new discoveries. However, data is only the very basis and before it is useful, first, it needs to be turned into information and interpreted. Otherwise, it would not contribute to anything and just exist on its own. So effectively it only contributes indirectly to new discoveries.

[[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]] 15:00, 26 December 2023 (EST)

Talk:Data (preliminary)

2023-12-26T19:46:31Z

Philip Deischl: correcting Spelling/ Grammar mistakes

Data (preliminary)

2023-12-26T19:43:10Z

Philip Deischl: correcting a spelling mistake

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitios one can hold about the ''data'' concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of philosophy in the information age. The question "what is data?" is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarification_about_"Information,_Knowledge_and_Philosophy"|"A Journey through philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and ammend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==

'''Data''' can be understood as facts about a specific topic that contribute to creating a new discovery or idea.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Vanessa Castro|Vanessa Castro]]

'''Data''' is any type of feature of anything. These features are always objective, factual, and non-discussible. Data can exist by itself, but the moment it is observed it turns into information, which then becomes open for interpretation and thus potentially, but not necessarily, subjective.

* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]]

Talk:Data (preliminary)

2023-12-26T19:39:03Z

Philip Deischl: Comment on previous definition: data only indirectly affects novelties.

I agree with the idea of Vanessa, that data is factual, and also that it contributes to new discoveries. However, data is only the very basis and before it is useful, it firstly needs to be turned into information and interpreted. Otherwise it would not contribute to anything and just exist on it's own. So effectively it only contributes indirectly to new discoveries.

Data (preliminary)

2023-12-26T19:29:50Z

Philip Deischl: Added my personal definition of Data

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitios one can hold about the ''data'' concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of philosophy in the information age. The question "what is data?" is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarification_about_"Information,_Knowledge_and_Philosophy"|"A Journey through philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and ammend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==

'''Data''' can be understood as facts about a specific topic that contribute to creating a new discovery or idea.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Vanessa Castro|Vanessa Castro]]

'''Data''' is any type of feature of anything. These features are always objective, factual, and non discussible. Data can exist by itself, but the moment it is observed it turns into information, which then becomes open for interpretation and thus potentially, but not necessarily, subjective.

* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Philip Deischl|Philip Deischl]]

Information (preliminary)

2023-12-26T18:16:10Z

Philip Deischl: two spelling mistakes

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitions one can hold about the information concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of philosophy in the information age. The question "what is information?" is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarification_about_"Information,_Knowledge_and_Philosophy"|"A Journey through philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and amend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==
'''Information''' is a collection of data that has been processed in a meaningful way to meet a specific need. To make it meaningful and useful, it is processed, structured, or presented in a specific context. Information gives data meaning and improves its consistency. It aids in the maintenance of unfavourability and the reduction of uncertainty. As a result, when data is transformed into information, it never contains any irrelevant information. It includes information that is contextual, relevant, and useful. It also entails the manipulation of raw data, which results in the creation of knowledge. As already mentioned, knowledge consists of information and therefore is not the same as information.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Kais Ahmed|Kais Ahmed]]

''' Information ''' can be understood as an open to interpretation input that affects people behavior, which can be physically or visually perceived.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Vanessa Castro|Vanessa Castro]]

Personally, I’d argue that Information is all around us. Because the position of something itself holds already Information. Everything which isn’t complete random or displays some sort of pattern, does convey to some degree information. For an example the orbits of Planets, the wavelengths of light or the amount of O2 in the air. Which would also mean, that if we gather enough information, we could always come to the right conclusion. Or rather find the truth in itself. Although, in regards of this course I’ve learned that Information only becomes Information if somebody is, to formulate it frankly, is informed. Therefore, there has to be some sort of Network at work.
* Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Alexander Prugger|Alexander Prugger]]