glossaLAB - User contributions [en]

Draft:Misperception in Communication

2024-05-29T16:18:30Z

Maginot: Introduced the page

==Misperception in communication==
==='''Abstract'''===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence are some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can foster strong relationships or reduce conflict, and allow effective teamwork.
==='''Misperception in communication'''===
In the following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters, which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
==='''Case'''===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. The first you know and the second you don’t. Unknowing of this second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive. What went wrong in this communication chain?
==='''Communication'''===
Any interaction between systems through a code, this "shared" (important: it has to be shared by both communication partners) code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or semantic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
==='''Perception'''===
An internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things, producing a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it (the system) becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>

Keep in mind that the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer, so called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and creates a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal, for example, feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
==='''The Influence of Perception on Communication'''===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Basically the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref> If you are further interested in this topic I can recommend to read into associative memory. <ref name="ref43">Kahnemann, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow</ref>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation can be shared. This then means the code - mentioned under communication - is not shared, and thus misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
==='''Concept and Percept'''===
Let's further elaborate on this idea to understand the principle of the conceptual situation better. The inner understanding of everything is based on concepts. The moment new information is perceived, the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A through perception formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
==='''The Influence of Communication on Perception'''===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communicate. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.
==='''Insights'''===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides, it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in your partner’s position.
===Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention===
'''1: Social Issues''' Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far too present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33">Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.</ref>
===='''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues'''====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>;<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>; Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.
===='''2. Misperception in History'''====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this comes important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>

In most of these cases fear, and a strong belief on different opinions leads to immense danger and devastating consequences.
===='''3. Misperception in Science Communication'''====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this, there are often myths which arise from conversation between individuals. It goes from questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casuation. <ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million?”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change?

Anyways, to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find multiple statements about almost everything. But certified research, with terms the public understands, is rare. You could say there is a lot of information, but no certain knowledge.
===='''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History'''====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence. Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.
===='''4. Impact through Technological Advancements'''====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to diverse information.<ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, which can lead to hurt feelings or even generate conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.
===='''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?'''====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36">Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages</ref>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32">Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.</ref>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.
===='''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology'''====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.
===='''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback'''====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he does not care”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member. There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35">Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.</ref>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
====5. Are you listening?====
'''5.1 Embrace Silence''' Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constantly moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34">Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009</ref>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially, but it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.
===='''5.2 Active Listening'''====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31">Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.</ref>

The phrase "whole message" emphasizes to also focus on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.
==='''Conclusion'''===
To summarize, misperceptions arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings, communication needs to become clear and absolute, verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose a different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright?” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!
==References==
<references><ref name="ref22" /> <ref name="ref23" /> <ref name="ref24" /> <ref name="ref25" /> <ref name="ref26" /> <ref name="ref27" /> <ref name="ref28" /> <ref name="ref29" /> <ref name="ref30" /> <ref name="ref31" /> <ref name="ref32" /> <ref name="ref33" /> <ref name="ref34" /> <ref name="ref35" /> <ref name="ref36" /> <ref name="ref37" /> <ref name="ref38" /> <ref name="ref39" /> <ref name="ref40" /> <ref name="ref41" /> <ref name="ref42" /> <ref name="ref43" /></references>

User:Maginot

2024-04-30T17:35:32Z

Maginot:

Studying at HM München in industrial engineering and meanwhile working as a working student in sales and marketing.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence are some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can foster strong relationships or reduce conflict, and allow effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In the following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters, which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. The first you know and the second you don’t. Unknowing of this second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain?

=== '''Communication''' ===
Any interaction between systems through a code, this "shared" (important: it has to be shared by both communication partners) code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or semantic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
An internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things, producing a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it (the system) becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind that the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer, so called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and creates a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal, for example, feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence of Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Basically the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>
If you are further interested in this topic I can recommend to read into associative memory. <ref name ="ref43"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation can be shared. This then means the code - mentioned under communication - is not shared, and thus misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
Let's further elaborate on this idea to understand the principle of the conceptual situation better. The inner understanding of everything is based on concepts. The moment new information is perceived, the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A through perception formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence of Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communicate. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides, it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in your partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far too present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this comes important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, and a strong belief on different opinions leads to immense danger and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this, there are often myths which arise from conversation between individuals. It goes from questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casuation. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million?”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change?

Anyways, to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find multiple statements about almost everything. But certified research, with terms the public understands, is rare. You could say there is a lot of information, but no certain knowledge.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to diverse information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, which can lead to hurt feelings or even generate conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he does not care”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
==== 5. Are you listening? ====
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constantly moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially, but it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

The phrase "whole message" emphasizes to also focus on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize, misperceptions arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings, communication needs to become clear and absolute, verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose a different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright?” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
<ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
<ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
<ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
<ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>
<ref name="ref31">Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.</ref>
<ref name="ref32">Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.</ref>
<ref name="ref33">Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.</ref>
<ref name="ref34">Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009</ref>
<ref name="ref35">Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref36">Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages</ref>
<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
<ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
<ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
<ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>
<ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>
<ref name="ref43">Kahnemann, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow</ref>
</references>

Perception

2024-04-30T17:34:53Z

Maginot:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's Perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
The type mainly focused on when handling the topic of perception is the visual one. Visual perception showing and interpreting the external world. In order for visual perception to happen, light strikes the retina of the eye, resulting in a reception of light. Then going through the sensory system, the optic nerve and information to the brain to be perceived.

====Perception of touch ====
Within the skin, the essential, external organ for touch, exist sensory cells, that react to differences in pressure and temperature. The information recorded is sent to the brain and interpreted there.

=====Haptic perception=====
Haptic perception regards the exploration of surfaces and objects by a moving subject in opposition to passive contact by a static subject<ref name="ref3"/>.
The term „Haptik“ was first introduced by Max Dessoir for a term of the research of the sense of touch. Later Gibson defined it as "[t]he sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body“<ref name="ref4"/>.
For identification of three dimensional objects four exploratory procedures have been identified
* Lateral motion
* Pressure
* Enclosure
* Contour following
Therefore identifying a subjects properties<ref name="ref5"/>.

====Perception of Sound====
Hearing works through the perception of sound waves through the outer ear. The eardrum transmits the vibrations to the middle ear. From there it comes to the inner ear, in which the vibrations from the middle ear in the cochlea, in which there is fluid, are passed on to the brain via the auricular hairs via the auricular nerve. In addition to cochlea there is also the worry of balance weight.

=====Auditory Perception=====
Auditory perception discussed „the motivation for exploring non-visual modalities, how audition bears on theorizing about perception, and questions concerning the objects, contents, phenomenology, varieties, and bounds of auditory perception“.<ref name="ref6"/>

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence are some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can foster strong relationships or reduce conflict, and allow effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In the following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters, which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. The first you know and the second you don’t. Unknowing of this second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain?

=== '''Communication''' ===
Any interaction between systems through a code, this "shared" (important: it has to be shared by both communication partners) code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or semantic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
An internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things, producing a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it (the system) becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind that the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer, so called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and creates a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal, for example, feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence of Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Basically the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>
If you are further interested in this topic I can recommend to read into associative memory. <ref name ="ref43"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation can be shared. This then means the code - mentioned under communication - is not shared, and thus misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
Let's further elaborate on this idea to understand the principle of the conceptual situation better. The inner understanding of everything is based on concepts. The moment new information is perceived, the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A through perception formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence of Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communicate. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides, it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in your partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far too present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this comes important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, and a strong belief on different opinions leads to immense danger and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this, there are often myths which arise from conversation between individuals. It goes from questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casuation. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million?”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change?

Anyways, to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find multiple statements about almost everything. But certified research, with terms the public understands, is rare. You could say there is a lot of information, but no certain knowledge.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to diverse information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, which can lead to hurt feelings or even generate conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he does not care”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
==== 5. Are you listening? ====
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constantly moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially, but it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

The phrase "whole message" emphasizes to also focus on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize, misperceptions arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings, communication needs to become clear and absolute, verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose a different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright?” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
<ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
<ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
<ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
<ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
<ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>
<ref name="ref31">Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.</ref>
<ref name="ref32">Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.</ref>
<ref name="ref33">Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.</ref>
<ref name="ref34">Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009</ref>
<ref name="ref35">Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref36">Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages</ref>
<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
<ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
<ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
<ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>
<ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>
<ref name="ref43">Kahnemann, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

User:Maginot

2024-04-29T16:38:45Z

Maginot:

Studying at HM München in industrial engineering and meanwhile working as a working student in sales and marketing.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence are some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can foster strong relationships or reduce conflict, and allow effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In the following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters, which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. The first you know and the second you don’t. Unknowing of this second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain?

=== '''Communication''' ===
Any interaction between systems through a code, this "shared" (important: it has to be shared by both communication partners) code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or semantic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
An internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things, producing a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it (the system) becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind that the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer, so called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and creates a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal, for example, feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence of Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Basically the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation can be shared. This then means the code - mentioned under communication - is not shared, and thus misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
Let's further elaborate on this idea to understand the principle of the conceptual situation better. The inner understanding of everything is based on concepts. The moment new information is perceived, the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A through perception formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence of Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communicate. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides, it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in your partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far too present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this comes important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, and a strong belief on different opinions leads to immense danger and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this, there are often myths which arise from conversation between individuals. It goes from questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casuation. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million?”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change?

Anyways, to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find multiple statements about almost everything. But certified research, with terms the public understands, is rare. You could say there is a lot of information, but no certain knowledge.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to diverse information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, which can lead to hurt feelings or even generate conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he does not care”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
==== 5. Are you listening? ====
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constantly moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially, but it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

The phrase "whole message" emphasizes to also focus on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize, misperceptions arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings, communication needs to become clear and absolute, verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose a different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright?” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
<ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
<ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
<ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
<ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>
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</references>

Perception

2024-04-29T16:35:58Z

Maginot:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's Perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
The type mainly focused on when handling the topic of perception is the visual one. Visual perception showing and interpreting the external world. In order for visual perception to happen, light strikes the retina of the eye, resulting in a reception of light. Then going through the sensory system, the optic nerve and information to the brain to be perceived.

====Perception of touch ====
Within the skin, the essential, external organ for touch, exist sensory cells, that react to differences in pressure and temperature. The information recorded is sent to the brain and interpreted there.

=====Haptic perception=====
Haptic perception regards the exploration of surfaces and objects by a moving subject in opposition to passive contact by a static subject<ref name="ref3"/>.
The term „Haptik“ was first introduced by Max Dessoir for a term of the research of the sense of touch. Later Gibson defined it as "[t]he sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body“<ref name="ref4"/>.
For identification of three dimensional objects four exploratory procedures have been identified
* Lateral motion
* Pressure
* Enclosure
* Contour following
Therefore identifying a subjects properties<ref name="ref5"/>.

====Perception of Sound====
Hearing works through the perception of sound waves through the outer ear. The eardrum transmits the vibrations to the middle ear. From there it comes to the inner ear, in which the vibrations from the middle ear in the cochlea, in which there is fluid, are passed on to the brain via the auricular hairs via the auricular nerve. In addition to cochlea there is also the worry of balance weight.

=====Auditory Perception=====
Auditory perception discussed „the motivation for exploring non-visual modalities, how audition bears on theorizing about perception, and questions concerning the objects, contents, phenomenology, varieties, and bounds of auditory perception“.<ref name="ref6"/>

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence are some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can foster strong relationships or reduce conflict, and allow effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In the following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters, which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. The first you know and the second you don’t. Unknowing of this second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain?

=== '''Communication''' ===
Any interaction between systems through a code, this "shared" (important: it has to be shared by both communication partners) code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or semantic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
An internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things, producing a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it (the system) becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind that the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer, so called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and creates a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal, for example, feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence of Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Basically the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation can be shared. This then means the code - mentioned under communication - is not shared, and thus misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
Let's further elaborate on this idea to understand the principle of the conceptual situation better. The inner understanding of everything is based on concepts. The moment new information is perceived, the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A through perception formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence of Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communicate. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides, it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in your partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far too present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this comes important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, and a strong belief on different opinions leads to immense danger and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this, there are often myths which arise from conversation between individuals. It goes from questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casuation. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million?”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change?

Anyways, to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find multiple statements about almost everything. But certified research, with terms the public understands, is rare. You could say there is a lot of information, but no certain knowledge.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to diverse information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, which can lead to hurt feelings or even generate conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he does not care”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
==== 5. Are you listening? ====
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constantly moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially, but it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

The phrase "whole message" emphasizes to also focus on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize, misperceptions arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings, communication needs to become clear and absolute, verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose a different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright?” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
<ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
<ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
<ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
<ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
<ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>
<ref name="ref31">Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.</ref>
<ref name="ref32">Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.</ref>
<ref name="ref33">Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.</ref>
<ref name="ref34">Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009</ref>
<ref name="ref35">Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref36">Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages</ref>
<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
<ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
<ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
<ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>
<ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

User talk:Maginot

2024-04-27T13:50:13Z

Maginot: Replaced content with "== Answer to Observation by Student == Dear Prof. Diaz, indeed I am definitely confused, but we will get there. I think I moved my text now to perception, but it is not fully ready yet. Still working on it and planning to do adjustments here and there! Best regards, Vincent Maginot ==Observation of the teacher== Dear Vincent, I think you're confusse about how to proceed in the edition in glossaLAB. It is the namespace "Draft:" where you should be editing your co..."

== Answer to Observation by Student ==
Dear Prof. Diaz,

indeed I am definitely confused, but we will get there.
I think I moved my text now to perception, but it is not fully ready yet.
Still working on it and planning to do adjustments here and there!

Best regards,
Vincent Maginot

==Observation of the teacher==
Dear Vincent,

I think you're confusse about how to proceed in the edition in glossaLAB. It is the namespace "Draft:" where you should be editing your contributions unless you are going to work on a page/article already opened. In your case, perception is already opened in the main namespace, s. [[perception|perception]], but you can surely improve previous article, which facilitate indeed the covering of the criteria concening collaboration (with the work of others). Be aware that if you enter any change in such page, it will be saved but not visible until the responsible of the section enables it for publication, unless you edit it or you ask to view the most recent (and not yet approved) version (in both cases only if you're authenticated).

The user's discussion page should be left to enable the discussion with you. Nonetheless, within your user, you can open subpages in case you want to make any trials before proposing any content into the article.

Best regards,

[[User:JDíaz|JDíaz]] ([[User talk:JDíaz|talk]]) 19:08, 26 April 2024 (CEST)

[[Category:Article]]

Perception

2024-04-27T13:47:04Z

Maginot:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's Perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
The type mainly focused on when handling the topic of perception is the visual one. Visual perception showing and interpreting the external world. In order for visual perception to happen, light strikes the retina of the eye, resulting in a reception of light. Then going through the sensory system, the optic nerve and information to the brain to be perceived.

====Perception of touch ====
Within the skin, the essential, external organ for touch, exist sensory cells, that react to differences in pressure and temperature. The information recorded is sent to the brain and interpreted there.

=====Haptic perception=====
Haptic perception regards the exploration of surfaces and objects by a moving subject in opposition to passive contact by a static subject<ref name="ref3"/>.
The term „Haptik“ was first introduced by Max Dessoir for a term of the research of the sense of touch. Later Gibson defined it as "[t]he sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body“<ref name="ref4"/>.
For identification of three dimensional objects four exploratory procedures have been identified
* Lateral motion
* Pressure
* Enclosure
* Contour following
Therefore identifying a subjects properties<ref name="ref5"/>.

====Perception of Sound====
Hearing works through the perception of sound waves through the outer ear. The eardrum transmits the vibrations to the middle ear. From there it comes to the inner ear, in which the vibrations from the middle ear in the cochlea, in which there is fluid, are passed on to the brain via the auricular hairs via the auricular nerve. In addition to cochlea there is also the worry of balance weight.

=====Auditory Perception=====
Auditory perception discussed „the motivation for exploring non-visual modalities, how audition bears on theorizing about perception, and questions concerning the objects, contents, phenomenology, varieties, and bounds of auditory perception“.<ref name="ref6"/>

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
==== 5. Are you listening? ====
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

==References==
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<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
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<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
<ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
<ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
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==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-04-27T13:46:17Z

Maginot:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's Perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
The type mainly focused on when handling the topic of perception is the visual one. Visual perception showing and interpreting the external world. In order for visual perception to happen, light strikes the retina of the eye, resulting in a reception of light. Then going through the sensory system, the optic nerve and information to the brain to be perceived.

====Perception of touch ====
Within the skin, the essential, external organ for touch, exist sensory cells, that react to differences in pressure and temperature. The information recorded is sent to the brain and interpreted there.

=====Haptic perception=====
Haptic perception regards the exploration of surfaces and objects by a moving subject in opposition to passive contact by a static subject<ref name="ref3"/>.
The term „Haptik“ was first introduced by Max Dessoir for a term of the research of the sense of touch. Later Gibson defined it as "[t]he sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body“<ref name="ref4"/>.
For identification of three dimensional objects four exploratory procedures have been identified
* Lateral motion
* Pressure
* Enclosure
* Contour following
Therefore identifying a subjects properties<ref name="ref5"/>.

====Perception of Sound====
Hearing works through the perception of sound waves through the outer ear. The eardrum transmits the vibrations to the middle ear. From there it comes to the inner ear, in which the vibrations from the middle ear in the cochlea, in which there is fluid, are passed on to the brain via the auricular hairs via the auricular nerve. In addition to cochlea there is also the worry of balance weight.

=====Auditory Perception=====
Auditory perception discussed „the motivation for exploring non-visual modalities, how audition bears on theorizing about perception, and questions concerning the objects, contents, phenomenology, varieties, and bounds of auditory perception“.<ref name="ref6"/>

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
==== 5. Are you listening? ====
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

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<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
<ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
<ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
<ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>
<ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-04-27T13:45:13Z

Maginot:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's Perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
The type mainly focused on when handling the topic of perception is the visual one. Visual perception showing and interpreting the external world. In order for visual perception to happen, light strikes the retina of the eye, resulting in a reception of light. Then going through the sensory system, the optic nerve and information to the brain to be perceived.

====Perception of touch ====
Within the skin, the essential, external organ for touch, exist sensory cells, that react to differences in pressure and temperature. The information recorded is sent to the brain and interpreted there.

=====Haptic perception=====
Haptic perception regards the exploration of surfaces and objects by a moving subject in opposition to passive contact by a static subject<ref name="ref3"/>.
The term „Haptik“ was first introduced by Max Dessoir for a term of the research of the sense of touch. Later Gibson defined it as "[t]he sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body“<ref name="ref4"/>.
For identification of three dimensional objects four exploratory procedures have been identified
* Lateral motion
* Pressure
* Enclosure
* Contour following
Therefore identifying a subjects properties<ref name="ref5"/>.

====Perception of Sound====
Hearing works through the perception of sound waves through the outer ear. The eardrum transmits the vibrations to the middle ear. From there it comes to the inner ear, in which the vibrations from the middle ear in the cochlea, in which there is fluid, are passed on to the brain via the auricular hairs via the auricular nerve. In addition to cochlea there is also the worry of balance weight.

=====Auditory Perception=====
Auditory perception discussed „the motivation for exploring non-visual modalities, how audition bears on theorizing about perception, and questions concerning the objects, contents, phenomenology, varieties, and bounds of auditory perception“.<ref name="ref6"/>

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. <ref name="ref26"/>

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. <ref name="ref22"/>

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. <ref name="ref25"/>

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. <ref name="ref27"/>

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. <ref name="ref40"/>

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. <ref name="ref24"/>

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. <ref name="ref29"/>

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. <ref name="ref23"/>

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. <ref name="ref30"/>

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.<ref name="ref33"/>

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. <ref name="ref42"/>;<ref name="ref39"/>;
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.<ref name="ref37"/>

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. <ref name="ref38"/>

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.<ref name="ref28"/>

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. <ref name="ref36"/>

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. <ref name="ref32"/>

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. <ref name="ref35"/>

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… <ref name="ref41"/>

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
=== 5. Are you listening? ===
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. <ref name="ref34"/>

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. <ref name="ref31"/>

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

==References==
<references>
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[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
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<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
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<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
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<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
<ref name="ref22">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION</ref>
<ref name="ref23">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT</ref>
<ref name="ref24">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref25">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref26">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS</ref>
<ref name="ref27">BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception</ref>
<ref name="ref28">Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref29">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/</ref>
<ref name="ref30">Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005</ref>
<ref name="ref31">Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.</ref>
<ref name="ref32">Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.</ref>
<ref name="ref33">Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.</ref>
<ref name="ref34">Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009</ref>
<ref name="ref35">Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.</ref>
<ref name="ref36">Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages</ref>
<ref name="ref37">Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736</ref>
<ref name="ref38">Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.</ref>
<ref name="ref39">Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40</ref>
<ref name="ref40">Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception</ref>
<ref name="ref41">The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge</ref>
<ref name="ref42">Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

User:Maginot

2024-04-27T13:25:20Z

Maginot:

Studying at HM München in industrial engineering and meanwhile working as a working student in sales and marketing.

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024e)

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024a)

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024d)

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024f)

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. (Schachtner, 2024)

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024c)

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2014)

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024b)

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. (Chia & Lee, 2008)

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.(Entman & Gross, 2008)

==== '''1.1 Education as a Strategy - Control Social Issues''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. (Wang, 2008);(Parker, 2008);
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''2. Misperception in History''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.(Mendeloff, 2008)

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''3. Misperception in Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. (Myers & Pineda, 2008)

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''3.1. Importance of Open Communication - in Science Communication and Misperception in History''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''4. Impact through Technological Advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.(Bostrom, 2014)

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''4.1 Nonverbal Communication as a Strategy - Can we still use it?''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. (Mehrabian, 1971)

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. (Ekman, 1972)

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''4.2 Usage of a Smart Channel Choice in the Age of Technology''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''4.3 Avoid Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. (Heider, 1982)

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… (The Decision Lab, 2021)

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.
'''
=== 5. Are you listening? ===
'''
'''5.1 Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. (Ephratt, 2008)

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''5.2 Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. (Dobelli, 2014)

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

=== '''Bibliography''' ===
BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception

Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/

Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005

Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.

Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.

Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.

Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009

Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages

Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736

Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.

Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40

Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception
The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge

Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/

User talk:Maginot

2024-04-25T15:04:03Z

Maginot:

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article focuses on how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception, and it introduces seven strategies for clear communication to avoid them. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024e)

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024a)

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024d)

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024f)

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. (Schachtner, 2024)

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024c)

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2014)

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024b)

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''Issue 1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. (Chia & Lee, 2008)

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.(Entman & Gross, 2008)

==== '''Strategy 1: The Role of Education''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. (Wang, 2008);(Parker, 2008);
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''Issue 2: Historical Events''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.(Mendeloff, 2008)

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''Issue 3: Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. (Myers & Pineda, 2008)

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''Strategy 2: Importance of Open Communication''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''Issue 4: Impact through technological advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.(Bostrom, 2014)

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''Strategy 3: Nonverbal Communication''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. (Mehrabian, 1971)

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. (Ekman, 1972)

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''Strategy 4: Smart Channel Choice''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''Strategy 5: Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. (Heider, 1982)

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… (The Decision Lab, 2021)

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.

'''Strategy 6: Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. (Ephratt, 2008)

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''Strategy 7: Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. (Dobelli, 2014)

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

=== '''Bibliography''' ===
BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception

Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/

Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005

Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.

Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.

Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.

Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009

Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages

Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736

Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.

Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40

Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception
The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge

Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/

[[Category:Article]]

User talk:Maginot

2024-04-25T14:58:50Z

Maginot:

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception, and thus miscommunication, can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article explores how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception. It outlines seven strategies for clear communication. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024e)

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact, you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers, like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article, the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024a)

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First, the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024d)

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024f)

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. (Schachtner, 2024)

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024c)

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2014)

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024b)

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''Issue 1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008, there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results, it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. (Chia & Lee, 2008)

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.(Entman & Gross, 2008)

==== '''Strategy 1: The Role of Education''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. (Wang, 2008);(Parker, 2008);
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''Issue 2: Historical Events''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.(Mendeloff, 2008)

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''Issue 3: Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. (Myers & Pineda, 2008)

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''Strategy 2: Importance of Open Communication''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''Issue 4: Impact through technological advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.(Bostrom, 2014)

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''Strategy 3: Nonverbal Communication''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. (Mehrabian, 1971)

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. (Ekman, 1972)

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''Strategy 4: Smart Channel Choice''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''Strategy 5: Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. (Heider, 1982)

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… (The Decision Lab, 2021)

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.

'''Strategy 6: Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. (Ephratt, 2008)

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''Strategy 7: Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. (Dobelli, 2014)

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

=== '''Bibliography''' ===
BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception

Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/

Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005

Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.

Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.

Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.

Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009

Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages

Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736

Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.

Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40

Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception
The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge

Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/

[[Category:Article]]

User talk:Maginot

2024-04-25T12:25:20Z

Maginot:

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception and thus miscommunication can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article explores how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception. It outlines seven strategies for clear communication. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

=== '''Misperception in communication''' ===
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024e)

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024a)

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024d)

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024f)

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. (Schachtner, 2024)

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024c)

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2014)

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024b)

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===

'''Issue 1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008 there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. (Chia & Lee, 2008)

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.(Entman & Gross, 2008)

==== '''Strategy 1: The Role of Education''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. (Wang, 2008);(Parker, 2008);
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''Issue 2: Historical Events''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.(Mendeloff, 2008)

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''Issue 3: Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. (Myers & Pineda, 2008)

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''Strategy 2: Importance of Open Communication''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''Issue 4: Impact through technological advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.(Bostrom, 2014)

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''Strategy 3: Nonverbal Communication''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. (Mehrabian, 1971)

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. (Ekman, 1972)

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''Strategy 4: Smart Channel Choice''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''Strategy 5: Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. (Heider, 1982)

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… (The Decision Lab, 2021)

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.

'''Strategy 6: Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. (Ephratt, 2008)

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''Strategy 7: Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. (Dobelli, 2014)

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

=== '''Bibliography''' ===
BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024a, April 25). Communication [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=COMMUNICATION

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024b, April 25). Concept and Percept [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPT+AND+PERCEPT

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024c, April 25). Conceptual Situation [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=CONCEPTUAL+SITUATION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024d, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTION&search=perception

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024e, April 25). Perceptual Filters [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERCEPTUAL+FILTERS

BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE. (2024f, April 25). Perspectivism [Encyclopedia]. Systemspedia. http://www.systemspedia.bcsss.org/?title=PERSPECTIVISM&search=perception

Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2014, May 21). M 01.06 Vorurteile und Stereotypen [Educational]. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/lernen/angebote/grafstat/fussball-und-nationalbewusstsein/130843/m-01-06-stereotypen-und-vorurteile/

Chia, S. C., & Lee, W. (2008). Pluralistic Ignorance About Sex: The Direct and the Indirect Effects of Media Consumption on College Students’ Misperception of Sex-Related Peer Norms. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edn005

Dobelli, R. (2014). The art of Thinking Clearly.

Ekman, P. (1972). Emotion in the Human Face.

Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.

Ephratt, M. (2008). The functions of silence. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(11), 1909–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.009

Heider, F. (1982). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Psychology Press.

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent Messages. https://www.academia.edu/23744443/Albert_Mehrabian_Silent_Messages

Mendeloff, D. (2008). `Pernicious History’ as a Cause of National Misperceptions: Russia and the 1999 Kosovo War. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836707086736

Myers, M. G., & Pineda, D. (2008). Do Vaccines Cause That?!: A Guide for Evaluating Vaccine Safety Concerns. i4ph.

Parker, A. (2008). Teaching the Child in Front of You in a Changing World. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=d1cdeb9955daaee1423d083de56b0340b056c13f#page=40

Schachtner, M. (2024, April 25). Perception [Encyclopedia]. glossaLAB. https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Perception
The Decision Lab. (2021). Curse of Knowledge. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/reference-guide/management/curse-of-knowledge

Wang, H. L. (2008). Teaching media literacy through critical pedagogy: An action research project in higher education [Doctoral, Durham University]. https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2058/

[[Category:Article]]

User talk:Maginot

2024-04-25T12:24:25Z

Maginot: /* Misperception in communication */ new section

TesTTeSTSTEST

== Misperception in communication ==

=== '''Abstract''' ===
Misperception and thus miscommunication can hurt feelings or create conflict. This article explores how subjective experiences and interpretations can lead to misperception. It outlines seven strategies for clear communication. Active listening, channel choice and the positive sides of silence would be some of them. Creating a culture of clear communication can fosters strong relationships, reduce conflict, and allows effective teamwork.

== '''Misperception in communication''' ====
In following article, the assumption is made that the subjects, which are humans, do not have any perceptual filters. Which means that no sensorial organ or part of the nervous subsystem reduces the capacity to observe the environment. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024e)

=== '''Case''' ===
You are in a positive mood, sending a text message to your friend „I will be there tonight” and the reply is a single „k“. Now you are confronted with two facts, the first you know and the second you don’t. 1. He acknowledged your message and ended the conversation. 2. He was busy and unable to respond longer. Unknowing of the second fact you are shaken up. You perceive the „k“ as dismissive.
What went wrong in this communication chain, how did a positive scenario turn bad in your head?

=== '''Communication''' ===
The interaction between systems using a code. This shared code is a necessity for communication to work. It is quite complex and has many different layers like physical, cultural, or sematic. In this article the focus lies on merely the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, but nowadays we could extend these interactions to a far more complex network. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024a)

=== '''Perception''' ===
The internal response to any kind of stimulus. First the subject might only be a living observer, experiencing things. With a following reaction which will likely produce a change in the structures of which the subject is aware of. The moment this happens it becomes aware of the perceived and does not just perceive. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024d)

Keep in mind the perception of an observation is partly the result of the viewpoint and methodology of the observer. So called perspective. All what seems to be objective perception of real facts and events is filtered by the biological features of the observer and their psychocultural achievements. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024f)

Same as with the many layers of communication there are also different layers of perception. Any kind of sense can be perceived and create a response. Not only the outer senses, but also internal for example feelings and emotions can be perceived. (Schachtner, 2024)

=== '''The Influence from Perception on Communication''' ===
A transmitter is sending a lot of information in their message, and the receiver won ‘t be able to take it all in. Thus, the information gets selected based on our experiences, interests, and expectations. Short the relations in our brain. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024c)

Should the transmitter and receiver have a different perception of the situation, two different realities allowing interpretation, misperception might arise.

The receiver will interpret the perceived information based on mentioned schemas and prejudices. Other typical psychologic effects for selecting information would also be the Halo-effect, similarity effect and contrast effect. (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2014)

=== '''Concept and Percept''' ===
To understand the principle of the conceptual situation better let ‘s elaborate. The inner understanding of everything is based in concepts. The moment new information is perceived the concept will be newly formed and the next perception is then again influenced by the built concept. A, through perception, formed and consolidated concept will not suddenly change through new perception. Why is that? It is called survival mechanism. The constancy of perception is a condition for survival. A surviving system will always try to strengthen and stabilise the own perception algorithm. (BERTALANFFY CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE, 2024b)

=== '''The Influence from Communication on Perception''' ===
Still even with the system of concept and percept new information which is received through communication will change the perception of a subject’s reality and will allow new perspectives.

This means that the subjective reality of attitude and belief can be influenced through communication.

Thus, be careful how-to communication. Negative and positive language can influence the perception and thus based on the idea of connotation might invoke a very positive or negative feeling in one’s reality.

=== '''Insights''' ===
Communication mustn’t assume a common perception by the transmitter and receiver. Thus, a message is an offering of meaning for the transmitter and only information with potential of change in the receiver. Result is misperception.

Communication and perception are based on the knowledge a system has about the world and on the context of a situation. Missing information leads to misperception.

Misperception can emerge through factors like the difference in perception through interpretation of the receiver or gaps in one’s persons knowledge.

Thus, effective communication has to be a communication which avoids misperception. This is only possible through a very clear, even nonverbal communication. Besides it is important to not underestimate empathy, the ability to put yourself in the communication partner’s position.

=== Impact of Misperception and Strategies for Prevention ===
==
'''Issue 1: Social Issues'''
Limited information leads to inaccurate views. For instance, in the year 2008 there was a study on college students’ misperception of sex related peer norms. The study focused on how Singaporean college students misconceived their peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviours. In the results it became obvious that students believe that their peers are significantly more active than it was the case. This view appeared to come in part from student’s media consumption. (Chia & Lee, 2008)

Another typical misperception which sadly is far to present is found in the stereotyping of media in criminal cases. There are certain Journalistic routines in place. Standardized story scripts, familiar stereotypes, so called “pack journalism” and the reliance on public officials. These lead to reporters creating less competitive news organizations, but a more homogeneous coverage. Looking at crime coverage, media routines tend to facilitate a pro-prosecution wall. This can lead to masses forgetting about the presumption of innocence and changing the term to a presumption of guilt. Without a discussion, there can’t be balance, but only unfair one-sided treatment. So 27 percent of suspects in crime stories get described using prejudicial information, and with that missing information, which leads to misperception.(Entman & Gross, 2008)

==== '''Strategy 1: The Role of Education''' ====
Misperceptions most of the time arise to a lack of knowledge. The importance of media literacy and critical thinking skills in education is already emphasized on through research. And there are even strategies around how to implement or improve education. (Wang, 2008);(Parker, 2008);
Students should be enabled to form their own informed opinions and challenge misperception. Evaluating sources, identifying bias and seeking factual information may very well be the foundation. Education which incorporates diverse perspectives and promotes open dialog could help students to tackle complex issues and understand the nuances behind them. Education is essential for removing misperceptions.

==== '''Issue 2: Historical Events''' ====
Historical actors often operate under incomplete information and biased interpretations. Even historical ideas themselves may be a source of misperception. And with this come important implications, since historical beliefs often are hardly immutable, it is very important to take effort in questioning harmful interpretations of history and avoid conflict causing perceptual distortions.(Mendeloff, 2008)

In most of these cases fear, a strong belief on different opinions lead to immense dangers and devastating consequences.

==== '''Issue 3: Science Communication''' ====
Especially in science clear and accurate information are a must. Misperceptions can influence the public’s understanding of scientific advancements. The main problem lies in the gap between scientific complexity and public knowledge. Because of this there are often Myths which arise from conversation in between individuals. It starts with questions like “why do we give vaccines for diseases we don’t see” to “vaccines give our kids autism”. Later statement might very well be more of a correlation than a casualization. (Myers & Pineda, 2008)

A quick side note, I also found the question “what if my child is one in a million”. Is it not interesting how hard of a time we humans have when it comes to exponential percentage change.

Anyways to underline this issue, let me tell you something. While researching this topic I am noticing it is very easy to find statements about everything, but research, with terms the public understands is not.

==== '''Strategy 2: Importance of Open Communication''' ====
In the case of science communication emphasizing the scientific consensus and tailoring messages to specific audiences, scientists can bridge the gap between knowledge and public understanding. This does create trust in science and empowers individuals to make informed decisions based on evidence.
Open communication is a very powerful tool if the target group is the public mass.

==== '''Issue 4: Impact through technological advancements''' ====
While offering immense benefits, technological advancements can very well create misperceptions. All these tools to connect us accelerate the spread of misinformation. This itself is a smaller issue, but now algorithms often prioritize content that confirms existing beliefs, creating a sense of consensus on this misinformation. A known case is the fear of a robot takeover thanks to AI. To prevent misperception it is important to be exposed to divers’ information.(Bostrom, 2014)

Especially written texts, as we have seen at the very beginning in our case introduction can lead to misperception. A simple “haha” could be sarcastic, other short messages feel cold. I did not find a study, but after consulting with friends and family, which is obviously only a very small group, people seem to be significantly worse at detecting sarcasms in text messages, this can lead to hurt feelings or even conflict.

Texting also allows rushed and imprecise communication. A missing comma or a poorly phrased sentence can drastically alter the intended meaning.

==== '''Strategy 3: Nonverbal Communication''' ====
This strategy is completely useless in texting, but exactly here we can see the importance of it. The tone of a voice, small facial expressions or body language are very important cues to perceive the message the sender tries to convey. Research by Albert Mehrabian even suggests that nonverbal communication accounts for a larger portion of a messages meaning, than the words themselves. (Mehrabian, 1971)

Meanwhile studies by aul Ekman highlight how facial expressions alone can universally communicate a range of emotions, promoting clearer understanding. (Ekman, 1972)

Even small signals like eye contact, nodding or open gestures can signal engagement, interest and may even allow us to adjust our way of communicating more towards the receiver.

==== '''Strategy 4: Smart Channel Choice''' ====
Based on the context and complexity of our information channel choice is equally important as nonverbal communication. A short statement may be a text, but cancelling an appointment might very well be a call. Here the receiver can at least hear if the sender is upset or just stressed out. This will allow the receiver to have more clarity over the emotions. Should a sensitive conversation arise, having it face to face might just be the right choice. Besides the increased clarity, since we can use all ways of our nonverbal communication, it also is considerate and respectful.

Some topics are very notorious, here it may be worth to try to combine channels. Write a text and talk about it at the same time.

==== '''Strategy 5: Assumptions, Clarity. Context and Feedback''' ====
By continuously avoiding assumptions and explaining the own thought process misperceptions can be greatly reduced. It will foster trust, strengthen collaboration, and thus progress relationships.

Never assume someone’s knowledge, intentions or even emotions. Someone might be sleeping in class and the professor will assume “he is not caring about it”, meanwhile the student might have spent a rough night taking care of a sick family member.
There is a high tendency to make interpretations, when lacking complete information. (Heider, 1982)

Also looking out for not using technical terms if the listener is unfamiliar with the field. Sellers know more than buyers; workers tend to know more than employers. A doctor would never explain a complex treatment to a patient, who has limited medical knowledge, since it would spread fear or anxiety. We tend to assume our audience shares our understanding… (The Decision Lab, 2021)

Always try to invite questions and work with concrete language and imagery, which will foster better comprehension. Active communication with the other party participating will minimize misperceptions.

Ask open ended question to gauge understanding, encourage the listener to rephrase your message in their own words.

'''Strategy 6: Embrace Silence'''
Misunderstandings often arise from the pressure to fill pauses or the urge to react impulsively. This is very common in our fast-paced constant moving world. Silence plays a far more crucial role in social interactions than we are aware of. It gives individuals time to process information, formulate responses and understand emotions. (Ephratt, 2008)

Silence may feel uncomfortable initially. But it creates a more thoughtful and connected communication style. By embracing silence, we create space for reflection.

But not only reflection. It also allows to ask clarifying questions, adjust the communication style, or emphasize a point. Sometimes it is even a way to signal disagreement.

Silence is also the foundation for the last and most important strategy “Active Listening”.

==== '''Strategy 7: Active Listening''' ====
By pausing before responding we demonstrate attentiveness and encourage the other person to elaborate. This allows a clearer understanding of their message and prevents jumping to conclusions.

Absorb the whole message and consider its implications, and then start formulating a response. Also, by delaying our response, we avoid interrupting the speaker. This will allow them to fully express themselves. (Dobelli, 2014)

Whole message also emphasizes on focusing on nonverbal communication. Active listening allows the receiver to recognize facial expressions, body language which offer valuable insights into the true intentions.

Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Ask clarifying questions to ensure you understand their perspective.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
To summarize misperceptions, arise because transmitter and receiver don’t have the same perception of a message. Information gets filtered through subjective experience, interests, and expectations. To prevent misunderstandings communication needs to become clear and absolute. Verbal and nonverbal. Empathy, the ability to take the perspective of the other party is helpful. This text focused on different areas where misperceptions can have negative results. Be it in social topics, historic events or in science communication. It also tries to find strategies to prevent, like open communication, the choice of the right channel and the usage of silence.

The benefit of effective communication which reduces misperception is the creation of a culture of clear communication.

A culture of clear communication can reduce misperceptions and conflict. There will be fewer hurt feelings and thus a more empathetic environment, where people can take different perspectives. Promoting a more peaceful and harmonious world. This is the foundation to build trust and strengthen relationships which are needed to collaborate effectively and reach shared goals. An accurate exchange of information and ideas is also essential for tackling complex problems. It will also reduce stereotypes and prejudice, connecting different cultures and social groups.

How could communication be further improved to achieve a culture of clear communication?

Let’s get back to our case from the start and see how we could handle the communication chain now, after learning about the eight strategies. One idea could be to choose different channel. A quick phone call might work wonders. But in this case our friend was busy, so what now? Feedback! Don’t make an interpretation, a quick “is everything alright” could be the solution. Keep in mind, even if we do use these strategies, there will still be times, where a misperception will arise. Try to not fall into the trap and get worked up but use the strategies to clear them up!

=== '''Statement of Originality:''' ===
This article, titled “Misperception in Communication”, is my original work. I have not plagiarized any content, and all sources used have been properly cited according to American Psychological Association Citation Style (short APA).
25.04.2024
Vincent Maginot
--[[User:Maginot|Maginot]] ([[User talk:Maginot|talk]]) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (CEST)

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