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Perception

2025-01-05T20:28:42Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Reference corrected

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki> </ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki> </ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex. For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Processing of information, building of truth''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki> </ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2023). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki> </ref>

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, C. L., & Ziat, M. (2018). Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain. ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki> </ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Bayram-Weston, Zubeyde & Knight, John & Andrade, Maria. (2023). The senses 4: touch – physiology of the sensation and perception of touch. Nursing Times. 119. online. <nowiki>https://www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/</nowiki></ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, S. (2020). ''The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain''. Www.brainfacts.org. <nowiki>https://www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020</nowiki> </ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" /> Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those information are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, A. J. (2018). How We Hear: the Perception and Neural Coding of Sound. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''69''(1), 27–50. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki> </ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, A., Kumar, R., Aier, I., Semwal, R., Tyagi, P., & Varadwaj, P. (2019). Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research. ''Current Neuropharmacology'', ''17''(9), 891–911. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki> </ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. (2024a). ''Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways''. NeuroLaunch.com. <nowiki>https://neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/</nowiki> </ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, W., Lopez, L., Osher, J., Howard, J. D., Parrish, T. B., & Gottfried, J. A. (2010). Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception. ''Psychological Science'', ''21''(10), 1454–1463. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki> </ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, C. (2021). ''Taste''. Openbooks.lib.msu.edu; Michigan State University Libraries. <nowiki>https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/</nowiki> </ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. (2024b). ''Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception''. NeuroLaunch.com. <nowiki>https://neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/</nowiki> </ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, B. P. (2012). Neuroscience: Hardwired for taste. ''Nature'', ''486''(7403), S7–S9. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki> </ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, H. (2020). ''Dualism''. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/</nowiki> </ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K., & Schmidtke, K. (2020). Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Review of Philosophy and Psychology'', ''12''(2), 257–277. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki> </ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, D. (n.d.). ''Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/</nowiki> </ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, R., & Smith, D. W. (1989). ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook'' (pp. 147–179). Original. <nowiki>https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</nowiki> </ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki> </ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth, A. K. (2019). From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review'', ''27''(3), 378–410. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/s1062798719000061</nowiki> </ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

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Haris Omerhodzic: /* The Intentional Theory */ grammar edit

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex. For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref>

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Bayram-Weston, Zubeyde & Knight, John & Andrade, Maria. (2023). The senses 4: touch – physiology of the sensation and perception of touch. Nursing Times. 119. online. <nowiki>https://www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/</nowiki></ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" /> Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, A. J. (2018). How We Hear: the Perception and Neural Coding of Sound. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''69''(1), 27–50. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-05T18:57:54Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* References */

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex. For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref>

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Bayram-Weston, Zubeyde & Knight, John & Andrade, Maria. (2023). The senses 4: touch – physiology of the sensation and perception of touch. Nursing Times. 119. online. <nowiki>https://www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/</nowiki></ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" /> Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, A. J. (2018). How We Hear: the Perception and Neural Coding of Sound. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''69''(1), 27–50. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-05T18:55:48Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Haptic Perception */

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex. For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref>

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Bayram-Weston, Zubeyde & Knight, John & Andrade, Maria. (2023). The senses 4: touch – physiology of the sensation and perception of touch. Nursing Times. 119. online. <nowiki>https://www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/</nowiki></ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" /> Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-05T18:53:09Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Visual Perception */

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}

== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex. For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref>

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Bayram-Weston, Zubeyde & Knight, John & Andrade, Maria. (2023). The senses 4: touch – physiology of the sensation and perception of touch. Nursing Times. 119. online. <nowiki>https://www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/</nowiki></ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
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<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Bayram-Weston, Zubeyde & Knight, John & Andrade, Maria. (2023). The senses 4: touch – physiology of the sensation and perception of touch. Nursing Times. 119. online. <nowiki>https://www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/</nowiki></ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-05T15:36:48Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* References */

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of Doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-05T14:20:54Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Visual Perception */

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}

== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-05T13:43:44Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Introduction */ Comma added

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process, and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T22:10:34Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Introduction */

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
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<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
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<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
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<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
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<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
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<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
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<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T22:09:23Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Illusion and Hallucination */

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some".<ref name="ref20"/> To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T22:08:56Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Dretskes Approach */

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretske's Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T22:08:19Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Bibliography */

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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the Cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T22:04:36Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Titles

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Neuroscientific and Philosophical Approach on Perception ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
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</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T21:57:35Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Grammar edits and last refined alterations

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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, affecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relates to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex, serves as a fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours, and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance, temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under the guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as colour salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this stage, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise, research shows that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, which biases us towards or against objects before we consciously register the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space by integrating information from the skin, muscles, and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces, and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enable feedback about an object's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g., a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine, precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regarding sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation, each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise, it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are sent along nerve fibres towards the spinal cord, ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibres, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signals travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represent different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g., metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all, the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it leads to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound begins with sound waves defined as vibrations through a medium, for instance, air pressure, which travels through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperses it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to finely arranged cochlear filters, a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests that touch and sound information being shared, thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to an overcross of auditory sensation and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans possess approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, that information is passed to the piriform cortex region, where odour identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive similar signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additionally to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggests that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for conscious olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially respond to smell while being unaware of it. Even though odour processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory, and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found across the tongue's surface—called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavours such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are also processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consumption behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as research depicts, further from genetics, ageing, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one-dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather, it involves a separate mental dimension that shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly, the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views, where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and we are therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist such observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a causal link between an external object and the perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear, or smell an object if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment where a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exists in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists, and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore the individual cannot perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge from those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuine perception can occur even in non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptual truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, books, or cups of coffee arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example, colour or surface texture, regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g., size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary) acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physical entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object through sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state that possess intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carries representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a bent stick despite the fact that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined as resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes that intentionalism does not require not the postulation of mental intermediaries, for instance, sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observes a mind-independent object in the world (e.g., a real cup in front of you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representation of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such a real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing a hallucination, being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. If the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes, or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top-down processes, like prior expectations or learnt associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavily influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that the viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
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[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
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Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T20:49:42Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Reference added

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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, effecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, the human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relate to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller bits.<ref name=":6">Noller, F. (2021). ''Information Processing''. Glossalab. <nowiki>https://www.glossalab.org/wiki/Processing_of_information,_building_of_truth</nowiki></ref>

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to a overcross of auditory sensationa and perceptual belief.<ref name=":6" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception, if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction.

In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify, if the external cause matches the internal impression.<ref name=":6" />

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observe a mind-independent object in the world (e.g, a real cup in front you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representations of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing an hallucination being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. This stems that, if the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T20:44:44Z

Haris Omerhodzic: /* Visual Perception */

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}

== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, effecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, the human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relate to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller elements.

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to a overcross of auditory sensationa and perceptual belief.IP

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception, if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify, if the external cause matches the internal impression.IP

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observe a mind-independent object in the world (e.g, a real cup in front you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representations of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing an hallucination being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. This stems that, if the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T20:41:50Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Connecting established to Information processing

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, effecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, the human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relate to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to arise, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Along with Descartes analytical approach, raw light signals are simplified into features such as edges and movements by the visual cortex, then recombined under guidance of attention and memory. This creates a synergy between modern neuroscience and analysing complex phenomena into smaller elements.IF

Moreover, visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" /> In the same way, hearing a sound from different angles illustrates how inductive reasoning shapes the confidence we have in locating a pitch, leading to a overcross of auditory sensationa and perceptual belief.IP

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception, if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory. Nonetheless, in order to avoid illusions or blocked pathways, it is necessary to identify, if the external cause matches the internal impression.IP

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observe a mind-independent object in the world (e.g, a real cup in front you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representations of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing an hallucination being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. This stems that, if the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T19:47:15Z

Haris Omerhodzic:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, effecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, the human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relate to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" />

Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not a one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. This aligns with Plato's views where the soul is held to be immaterial and intellectually with higher being forms.<ref name=":5" /> While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref name=":5">Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. Likewise suggested by Hyman, a person lacks true perception, if the external object is not causing the experience. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This discrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observe a mind-independent object in the world (e.g, a real cup in front you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representations of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing an hallucination being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" /> Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. This stems that, if the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />
=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share, first introduced by Alois Riegl, later elaborated by Ernst Gombrich, highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T17:34:43Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Structural changes

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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, effecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, the human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relate to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" />

Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second.<ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture.<ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells.<ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone.<ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality.<ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data.<ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observe a mind-independent object in the world (e.g, a real cup in front you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representations of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing an hallucination being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" />

Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. This stems that, if the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation.<ref name=":4" />

=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target." <ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
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[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-04T17:28:48Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Disjunctive Theory added and Introduction altered

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world<ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. Yet every individual may perceive the same situation differently, which is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. What we perceive may be far from a direct reflection of reality. Personal interpretation is further influenced by cultural or ideological circumstances, effecting individual worldviews consistently.<ref name="ref2"/> Whether through vision, touch, hearing, taste, or smell, the human perception is never purely objective. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how each person's subjective pattern recognition relate to any objective reality. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.
== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" />

Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data. <ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===
A sensible idea for this theory is its core distinction between the veridical (mind-independent object) and non-veridical (illusion or hallucination) perception. The veridical states that the human observe a mind-independent object in the world (e.g, a real cup in front you) involving the actual external object, whereas non-veridical defines illusory or hallucinatory experiences as not genuinely seeing a mind-independent object. For this reason, J.M. Hinton argued that veridical perception and hallucination do not need to share a common nature, implying that even when both are indistinguishable from the inside, they do not share identical intrinsic properties.<ref>Soteriou, M. (2009). ''The Disjunctive Theory of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)''. Stanford.edu. <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/</nowiki></ref> In contrast, intentionalism proposes that both those experiences share an internal representations of which one happens to match reality, while disjunctive theory denies a shared mental representation for both experiences. Hence, seeing a cup in front of oneself, the cup belongs partly to the perceptual state, because its properties create in part the nature of one's perception. Whereas in hallucination, there does not exist such real cup forming a part of the experience. This difference is displayed by disjunctivism, either seeing actually a cup, where the external object is present, or merely undergoing an hallucination being entirely internal and absent from the real object.<ref name=":4" />

Thereupon, disjunctivism embraces a form of externalism, stating that identical brain states alone cannot guarantee the same perceptual state, due to the veridical experience that involves an actual object in the presence to be experienced. This stems that, if the neural processes remain the same while observing the object, but the external object disappears (e.g., a person shifts to a hallucination), the mental state changes from the ground on, once the subject is no longer the same type of the perceptual state. Thus, both veridical and non-veridical do not share an internal representation. <ref name=":4" />

=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== Sensory and Cognitive Constraints ===

=== Comparative Perception across Species ===

== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis -> only in word ==

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-03T22:03:45Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Structural and some text edits

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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.
===--===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual Perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" />

Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic Perception ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. This overall process from touching to interpretation follows multiple pathways. First of all the skin collects input with receptors (touch and vibration). Further, it lead's to an awareness of the object's movement in order to judge its weight and orientation, which is defined as kinaesthetic feedback. This refers to the sense of limb movement, where muscles, tendons, and joints work together with inputs to inform the brain. Those informations are then processed at the cortex and other parietal regions. Consequently, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory Perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

=== Smell Perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref>

After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref>

Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste Perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref>

Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data. <ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===

=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== Sensory and Cognitive Constraints ===

=== Comparative Perception across Species ===

== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis -> only in word ==

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-03T20:30:54Z

Haris Omerhodzic: The Intentional Theory added

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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.
===--===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic system ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

=== Smell perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== The Intentional Theory ===
Perception is a representational relationship linking conscious experience to the external world in virtue of their content rather than any direct sensory object following the intentional theory.<ref name=":4" /> However, we perceive a chair not by apprehending a mental entity, but by adopting a perceptual state which posses intentional content. This suggests that our perceptual state inherently carry representations (e.g., there is a chair) that manifest the existence of objects within our mind. Therefore, seeing a bent stick in water is experienced still as a "bent stick", despite that the stick might be straight in the physical reality. Likewise, those illusions demonstrate cases where the world is misaligned with the mind's interpretation, yet the representational object remains intact within the human.<ref>Mcintyre, Ronald, and David Woodruff Smith. ''Husserl’s Phenomenology: A Textbook''. Original, 1989.https://www.csun.edu/~vcoao087/pubs/intent.pdf</ref> Moreover, when referring to intentionality, perception is defined to resembling beliefs or other attitudes, which postulates that illusions involve representational states that fail to match external objects or their properties. This concludes, that they not require the postulation of mental intermediaries, for example sense data. <ref name=":4" />

=== The Disjunctive Theory ===

=== Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== Sensory and Cognitive Constraints ===

=== Comparative Perception across Species ===

== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis -> only in word ==

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-02T20:46:10Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Structural changes

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==

=== Introduction ===
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.
===--===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ==

=== Visual perception ===
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

=== Haptic system ===
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

=== Auditory perception ===
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

=== Smell perception ===
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

=== Taste perception ===
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ==

=== Dualism ===
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

=== The Causal Theory ===
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

=== Direct Realism ===
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>

=== Indirect Realism ===
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

=== Phenomenalism ===

=== The Intentional Theory of Perception ===

=== Disjunctive Theory of Perception ===

=== The Beholder's Share ===
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

== Broader Influences of Perception ==

=== Internal Perception ===
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.

=== External Perception ===
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.

=== Feelings and Emotions ===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

=== Perceptional Focus ===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

=== Social Perception ===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />

=== Stages of Perception ===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

== Limitations of Human Perception ==

=== Limitation ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of Perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== Sensory and Cognitive Constraints ===

=== Comparative Perception across Species ===

== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis -> only in word ==

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-02T20:31:05Z

Haris Omerhodzic:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience ==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

==== The Beholder's Share on Perception ====
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

==== Dualism ====
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

==== Phenomenalism ====

==== The Intentional Theory of Perception ====

==== Disjunctive Theory of Perception ====

=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis ===

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-02T20:22:40Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Indirect Realism expanded and enhanced

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

==== The Beholder's Share on Perception ====
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

==== Dualism ====
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref name=":4">O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that physical objects exist mind-independently, and we therefore perceive them through an internal intermediary rather than directly. This construct (intermediary), acts as a bridge between the mind and the external world. For instance, a chair is an internally produced image in the human visual system caused by the physical properties (light reflection, etc.), rather than a physcial entity itself.<ref name=":4" /> Hence, these physical objects and their properties cause mental perceptions, being commonly termed with sense data (e.g., colour, texture, shape). Despite being caused by physical stimuli, these sensed data are not themselves physical. According to John Locke, we do not perceive an external object itself but rather our idea of it, reinforcing this idea of an intermediary.<ref name="ref14" /> <ref name="ref13" /> Thus, the mind indirectly perceives an object thorugh sense data, which is generated in part by a causal chain including light rays, neuronal processes, and the subjective experience of colour, shape, or other features.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, the real object (e.g., a chair) remains independent of the observer, while our knowledge of the external world exists constantly indirect.

==== Phenomenalism ====

==== The Intentional Theory of Perception ====

==== Disjunctive Theory of Perception ====

=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis ===

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-02T00:14:11Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Direct Realism expanded and enhanced

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

==== The Beholder's Share on Perception ====
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

==== Dualism ====
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism suggests that the perception of objects such as chairs, sun, or cups of coffee, arises from our engagement with them, rather than mere mental images. A sensible idea for this implies that objects exist independently of any perceiver's awareness. Hence, direct realism can be divided into naïve realism and scientific realism. According to naïve realism, objects retain all perceived properties, for example colour or surface texture regardless of the observation. In contrast, scientific realism argues that certain examined qualities (e.g., sweetness) depend on the examiner, while mass or shape persist irrespective of observation. Likewise, Locke's notion of primary (e.g, size, motion) versus secondary (e.g., colour, taste) qualities aligns partially, whereas primary exists objectively and secondary dispositional. However, both assert fundamentally that the senses must be in direct contact with the external reality. <ref>O’Brien, Daniel. “Perception, Objects of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” ''Objects of Perception'', iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/#H1.</ref>
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13" /><ref name="ref14" />

Phenomenalism

The Intentional Theory of Perception

==== Disjunctive Theory of Perception ====

=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Work-in-Progress+

Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
Work-in-Progress+

The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Work-in-Progress+

Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis ===

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
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</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-01T22:40:18Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Dualism created

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

==== The Beholder's Share on Perception ====
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

==== Dualism ====
Dualism proposes that perceiving is not an one dimensional outcome of physical processes in the brain, rather it involves a separate mental dimension which shapes our conscious experience. Accordingly the idea of Descartes argues that the mind is indeed a thinking substance distinct from the body's extended substance. While eyes, ears, and other organs receive physical data, our conscious perception exceeds these signals, and being therefore accountable for our intentional and subjective interpretation within our mental realm. For this reason, the dualism claims that physical explanations cannot resolve the pure nature of sensory experience. For instance, when viewing a striking painting, the sensation is tangled to the subjective awareness in a way, where no objective, third-person description of the painting's properties could evoke the same experience. Therefore, if mental events were only based on physical circumstances, then anyone using the right instruments could equally observe, yet first-person experiences resist sich observations. Nonetheless, whether the mental district is a separated substance or not, dualism demands that understanding true perception requires more than physical causation alone. <ref>Robinson, Howard. “Dualism.” ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2020, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/.</ref>

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13" /><ref name="ref14" />

==== Disjunctive Theory of Perception ====

=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Work-in-Progress+

Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
Work-in-Progress+

The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Work-in-Progress+

Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis ===

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
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<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2025-01-01T20:19:20Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Beholder's Share refined and expanded

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

==== The Beholder's Share on Perception ====
The Beholder's Share highlights how each viewer actively completes an artwork. Sensory elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or scenic details initially shape our perception of the piece. However, top down processes, like prior expectations or learned associations, further refine our conscious vision. Certainty, perception involves the interpretation and integration of sensory stimuli and expectations, unlike sensing relying only on raw detection of stimuli.<ref name=":3">Seth AK. From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience. ''European Review''. 2019;27(3):378-410. doi:10.1017/S1062798719000061</ref> For this reason, can perception be seen as an active construction of experience, while sensing as a passive reception of information. Due to the heavy influential nature of context, information about the artist's life or familiarity with their work of art can dramatically shift interpretation, illustrating that viewer's knowledge and beliefs co-create an artwork's effect. Moreover, the artist's intentions often differ from those of the observer. This lack or conflict of context can completely redirect the emotional or intellectual experience of an artwork. Following this interplay between stimulus input and the observer's framework undermines the deeper principle, that perception emphasises a projection of one's internal model onto the external features to construct meaning. <ref name=":3" /> As a result, the physical properties of the artwork itself emerge as much as from the viewer's interpretive engagement.

==== Epistemological Dualism ====

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13" /><ref name="ref14" />

==== Disjunctive Theory of Perception ====

=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Work-in-Progress+

Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
Work-in-Progress+

The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Work-in-Progress+

Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis ===

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
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<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
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<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
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<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
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<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
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<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
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Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-31T22:22:18Z

Haris Omerhodzic: The Causal Theory edited

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===
==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
Perception requires a casual link between an external object and perceiver's sensory experience following the causal theory. We see, hear or smell an object, if that object itself brings the relevant sensory experiences. This principle can be illustrated by the thought experiment, were a blocked pathway (e.g., a mirror) exits in front of the person and the pillar behind the person, no direct causal relationship exists and therefore the pillar cannot be truly perceived. In this scenario, the mirror redirects the light from the actual pillar to the eyes, and therefore can the individual not perceive the intended object. This applies across modalities of vision, auditory, and olfaction for intuitive judgement in "Blocker cases" (e.g., a mirror redirecting) and "Non-Blocker cases" (e.g., brain stimulation producing similar experience). However, some individuals diverge form those intuitive philosophical standpoints, where participants believe that genuinely perception can occur even in Non-Blocker scenarios, as shown by studies.<ref>Roberts, P., Allen, K. & Schmidtke, K. Reflective Intuitions about the Causal Theory of Perception across Sensory Modalities. ''Rev.Phil.Psych.'' '''12''', 257–277 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00478-6</nowiki></ref> This diescrepancy raises questions about whether causal condition is truly a conceptial truth for perception. Thereupon, this mismatch illustrates that individuals assume perception might be conceivable only on brain stimulation, implying an exposure without physical obstruction. In contrast, due to the causal condition embedded in our very own concept of perception, deeper reflection or strict philosophical training is needed to align our intuitions with the standards of the causal theory.

==== Philosophy of Perception and the Beholder's Share ====
Work-in-Progress+

The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

==== Epistemological Dualism ====

==== Direct Realism and Indirect Realism ====
Work-in-Progress+

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13" /><ref name="ref14" />
=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Work-in-Progress+

Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
Work-in-Progress+

The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Work-in-Progress+

Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16" />
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16" /><ref name="ref17" />.

=== A Philosophical-Neuroscientific Synthesis ===

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
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<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-29T23:45:05Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Taste perception, introduction and some minor changes

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|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
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== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Taste perception====
The idea of taste starts with taste visual buds found in across the tongue's surface - called papillae, where each bud contains receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells. <ref>Henley, Casey. “Taste.” ''Openbooks.lib.msu.edu'', Michigan State University Libraries, 1 Jan. 2021, openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/.</ref> Flavour such as sugars or bitter alkaloids are detected by those cells and converted into electrical signals. The signals are then transmitted via the cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus before reaching the primary gustatory cortex, where flavour information is perceived and processed.<ref>team, NeuroLaunch editorial. “Brain’s Taste Control Center: Mapping the Neural Pathways of Flavor Perception.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-taste/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2024.</ref> Besides the gustatory cortex, taste, smell, and texture are as well processed by the orbitofrontal cortex, influencing decisions about consume behaviour. In comparison, certain tastes evoke memories being attributable to the amygdala, while the hypothalamus contributes by regulating appetite and taste preferences. However, flavour depends, as a research depicts, further from genetics, aging, and neurological conditions. This underlies that the function of taste involves numerous neural circuits ensuring that each bite resonates beyond the tongue.<ref>Trivedi, Bijal P. “Neuroscience: Hardwired for Taste.” ''Nature'', vol. 486, no. 7403, June 2012, pp. S7–S9, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/486s7a</nowiki>.</ref>

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===

==== The Causal Theory of Perception ====
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15" />

==== Philosophy of Perception and the Beholder's Share ====
Work-in-Progress+

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

==== Epistemological Dualism ====

==== Direct Realism and Indirect Realism ====
Work-in-Progress+

====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13" /><ref name="ref14" />
=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

==== Feelings and Emotions ====
Work-in-Progress+

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11" />.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

==== Perceptional Focus ====
Work-in-Progress+

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

==== Social Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12" />
==== Stages of Perception ====
Work-in-Progress+

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===
Work-in-Progress+

Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-29T20:59:30Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Tabel of contents and approach

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Philosophical Approach on Perception based on Neuroscience==
===Introduction===
Perception entails our diverse modalities of vision, touch, hearing, taste, and smell into an experience of the external world. Yet this experience is far from a direct reflection of reality. Individual perception is filtered by biological mechanisms, personal beliefs, and cultural contexts. As neuroscientific research shows, external stimuli are transformed into meaningful patterns. For this reason, philosophical approaches question how these patterns relate to any objective reality. Furthermore, we highlight the inherent subjectivity of perception by acknowledging that personal factors ranging from emotional states to social narratives shape the way we interpret stimuli. Consequently, examining both the neuroscience of sensation and the philosophical implications of our perceptual construction of the world, it broadens our understanding of implicit and explicit frameworks of reality.

=== Neuroscientific Foundations of Perception ===

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Perception of taste====

=== Philosophical Dimensions of Perception ===

==== Philosophy of Perception and the Beholder's Share ====

==== Epistemological Dualism ====

==== Direct Realism and Indirect Realism ====

=== Broader Influences of Perception ===

==== Feelings and Emotions ====

==== Perceptional Focus ====

==== Social Perception ====

==== Stages of Perception ====

=== Limitations of Human Perception ===

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-29T19:35:12Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Smell perception

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Perception of taste====

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-29T18:37:10Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Smell perception

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Smell perception====
Generally speaking, perceiving smell begins in the nose, where specialised olfactory receptors bind molecules. Correspondingly, humans posses approximately 396 functional receptor genes and many pseudogenes. These genes encode a large family of proteins found on the surface of cells. As a result of encoding these G protein-coupled receptors, cells can respond to thousands of potential molecules entering our nasal cavity. This binding creates an electrical signal to the transmitted to the olfactory bulb, where subtle scent differences are distinguished.<ref>Sharma, Anju, et al. “Sense of Smell: Structural, Functional, Mechanistic Advancements and Challenges in Human Olfactory Research.” ''Current Neuropharmacology'', vol. 17, no. 9, 22 Aug. 2019, pp. 891–911, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7052838/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626</nowiki>.</ref> After initial processing in the olfactory bulb, those information are passed to the piriform cortex region, where odor identification occurs, while on the other hand the amygdala and hippocampus receive likewise signals. The amygdala and hippocampus link smells to emotions and memories, contributing additional to an experience of recollections.<ref>NeuroLaunch editorial team. “Brain and Smell: Exploring the Olfactory System’s Neural Pathways.” ''NeuroLaunch.com'', 30 Sept. 2024, neurolaunch.com/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-smell/.</ref> Moreover, research suggest that the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is essential for consicous olfactory awareness. As depicted in a case, individuals with damage to the right OFC can partially response to smell, while being unaware of it. Even though, odor processing occurs at the piriform cortex or left OFC, a full smell perception requires the connectivity of all involved brain regions.<ref>Li, Wen, et al. “Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Conscious Olfactory Perception.” ''Psychological Science'', vol. 21, no. 10, 3 Sept. 2010, pp. 1454–1463, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382121</nowiki>.</ref> Nevertheless, the interplay between smell, memory and emotion is profound, hence it can evoke memories and shape our affective mood.

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-29T13:01:41Z

Haris Omerhodzic: Auditory perception

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Auditory Perception====
The interpretation of sound, begins with sound waves defined as vibration through a medium, for instance air pressure, which travales through the outer ear channels towards the eardrum. The eardrums begin to vibrate and convey them through the middle ear bones into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. Further, the frequency being established in the basilar membrane of the cochlea disperse it to specific locations, forming a tonotopic map. Hair cells convert these mechanical vibrations into neural signals transmitted onwards the auditory nerve to the brain. However, due to fine arranged cochlear filters a vast range of sound frequencies can be detected and separated into distinct pitches.<ref name=":2">Oxenham, Andrew J. “How We Hear: The Perception and Neural Coding of Sound.” ''Annual Review of Psychology'', vol. 69, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2018, pp. 27–50, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819010/, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011635</nowiki>.</ref> Once the signals travel through the central auditory nerve, main sound properties such as amplitude and frequency are processed by the midbrain's inferior colliculus, while high frequency is received by the inferior colliculus, overlapping with pure auditory processing. However, before tactile high frequencies reach the inferior colliculus, they must pass through the pacinian corpuscles of the skin. Pacinian corpuscles are primarily touch receptors contributing to a better sound experience. This overall convergence suggests, that touch and sound information being shared thereby interchangeable neuronal circuits, being the reason therefore why we feel and hear music. This underlines the human capacity to distinguish numerous pitches due to the cochlea's ability to segregate frequencies precisely.<ref name=":2" />

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]
[[Category:Introduction to Philosophy]]

Perception

2024-12-29T00:58:18Z

Haris Omerhodzic:

{{Head0_JTP
|Authors=[[User:Maja Elena B. Schachtner|Maja Schachtner]]
}}
== Overview ==
Perception is the sensory experience of the world <ref name="ref1"/>, the process and the subjective result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli originated in the environment and the self. An object or situation may be perceived differently by multiple individuals. Everyone is limited to their own perception. Perception is shaped through internal and external factors, such as ones beliefs, knowledge, experiences and sensing structures. Personal circumstances can also affect one's perception. What we perceive is not an accurate depiction of the externally existing world. One's perception of reality is one's brains perception. Personal stories reflective of master narratives you were born into hailed by ideology <ref name="ref2"/> may also take effect.

==Neuroscience of Perception==
The human perception bases itself essentially on the processing of the stimuli and stimulation perceived by human organs, which are processed in the brain. Feelings, emotions, actions, experiences, opinions and thought processes result from this processing.

===The types of Perception===
The perception of the external world can essentially be categorized into five types of perception: visual perception, perception of touch, auditory perception, perception of taste and perception of smell; in short: vision, sound, taste and smell. All types of perception are vital for human survival. The different types of perception work through sensory receptors sending information gathered from signals to the brain for processing. This leads to the stimulation of the sensory system. The information perceived then goes trough the stages of perception. Resulting in perception of the external world.

====Visual perception====
Visual perception can be understood as a diverse process that begins with the transformation of light stimuli into meaningful cognitive interpretations involving retinal sensing through photoreceptors and cortical processing in multiple brain areas.<ref name=":0">Donato, R., Pavan, A., & Campana, G. (2020). Investigating the Interaction Between Form and Motion Processing: A Review of Basic Research and Clinical Evidence. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566848</nowiki></ref> The photoreceptors receive light signals through the retina, converting them into electrical signals. Those signals are then transmitted along the optic nerve in the eye, in order to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus before arriving at the striate cortex. This cortex, known as the visual cortex serves on fundamental basis for the conscious perception of static form and local brightness differences, establishing the base for more complex visual processing.<ref>Pollen, D. A. (1999). On the Neural Correlates of Visual Perception. ''Cerebral Cortex'', ''9''(1), 4–19. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/9.1.4</nowiki></ref> Following that, after leaving the visual cortex, signals travel along the dorsal stream to the parietal cortex, serving for spatial orientation and motor actions such as reaching or eye movements. Further, focusing on forms, colours and object identity, signals must flow through the ventral stream into the inferior temporal cortex.<ref name=":0" /> For perceptual experience to be created, the visual cortex engages in recursive feedback loops with higher brain regions, for instance temporal and parietal. Those feedbacks enter into loops between each other to continuously compare new sensory data with prior knowledge or expectations, leading to our visual recognition of the outer world.<ref name=":0" /> Visual perception involves actively searching for relevant stimuli, influenced by external factors such as color salience and movement, as well as internal states in order to recognise objects. For instance, conspicuous features can capture human attention instantly, leading to unusual preferences when distractions occur. At this state, the ventral stream captures specific details from it. In addition, the temporal cortex stores those representations, helping humans to categorise and label familiar objects in fractions of a second. <ref name=":1">Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024). Visual neuroscience. ''Elsevier EBooks'', 51–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00004-2</nowiki></ref> Furthermore, visual search engages emotional and reward circuits, when identifying form and motion. The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens interact with cortical regions to process rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behaviour patterns triggered by appealing elements. Likewise research shows, that emotional associations are carried firmly throughout visual perception, that bias us towards or against objects before consciously registering the object. This phenomenon, known as microvalence, refers to subconscious evaluation of an object's aversiveness during visual processing.<ref name=":1" />

====Haptic system ====
Touch helps us to navigate through the physical space, by integrating information from the skin, muscles and joints to foster a cohesive perception of objects, surfaces and spatial relationships. While joints and muscles enables feedback about cup's orientation and weight, the skin contains a complex system of specialised nerve endings designed to detect mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture. <ref name=":02">Reed, Catherine L., and Mounia Ziat. “Haptic Perception: From the Skin to the Brain ☆.” ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology'', 2018, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.03182-5</nowiki>.</ref> The majority of receptors, which are distributed throughout the layers of the skin, are represented by:

# Merkel's Disc's:
#* Located in the deep epidermis
#* Highly sensitive to light touch and fine details
# Hair Follicle Receptors:
#* Responding to bending or subtle movement of hair
#* Detection of gentle stimuli (e.g. a soft breeze)
# Mechanoreceptors:
#* Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialise in detecting fine precise touch and are concentrated in the fingertips
#* Pacinian Corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration regards sudden changes in pressure
#* Ruffini's Endings: Perceives sustained pressure and skin stretch, helping to maintain a firm grip on objects

At different rates of stimulation each of the receptor types adapts continuously.<ref>Andrade, Maria, et al. “The Senses 4: Touch – Physiology of the Sensation and Perception of Touch | Nursing Times.” ''Nursing Times'', 13 Dec. 2022, www.nursingtimes.net/neurology/the-senses-4-touch-physiology-of-the-sensation-and-perception-of-touch-13-12-2022/.</ref> Likewise it converts physical energy (pressure, vibration, temperature) into electrical impulses, which are send along nerve fibers towards the spinal cord ensuring instantaneous awareness of haptic changes.<ref>Blumenrath, Sandra . “The Neuroscience of Touch and Pain.” ''Www.brainfacts.org'', 3 Feb. 2020, www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/touch/2020/the-neuroscience-of-touch-and-pain-013020.</ref> The electrical impulses are either transmitted through slowly adapting fibers, firing with persistent pressure, or rapidly adapting fibers. Once triggered, these signal travel to the somatosensory cortex, containing topographic maps of the skin, which represents different body parts.<ref name=":02" />

Furthermore, heating or cooling are detected by skin thermoreceptors influencing our recognition of objects (e.g metal feels colder than plastic at room temperature). If an object begins to warm up or cool down in the hand, through feedback humans can then indicate material properties such as moisture. The process from touching to interpretation for the haptic perception involves following steps:

# Input: Touch and vibration from the hands
# Kinesthetic Feedback: Awareness of finger and hand movement to judge weight and orientation
# Brain Processing: Integration into the cortex and other parietal regions

Therefore, the multiple lines of sensory information offer a detailed and adaptive representation of the physical world.<ref name=":02" />

====Perception of Sound====
Hearing works through the perception of sound waves through the outer ear. The eardrum transmits the vibrations to the middle ear. From there it comes to the inner ear, in which the vibrations from the middle ear in the cochlea, in which there is fluid, are passed on to the brain via the auricular hairs via the auricular nerve. In addition to cochlea there is also the worry of balance weight.

=====Auditory Perception=====
Auditory perception discussed „the motivation for exploring non-visual modalities, how audition bears on theorizing about perception, and questions concerning the objects, contents, phenomenology, varieties, and bounds of auditory perception“.<ref name="ref6"/>

====Perception of smell====
"The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space, warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences feelings and social behavior in general."<ref name="ref7"/>.On both sides of the nasal septum there are olfactory mucous membranes that are equipped with olfactory sensory cells. These have receptors for around 350 different fragrances. Scent stimuli are conducted via nerve tracts into the olfactory brain, from where they go directly to the hypothalamus and the limbic system.<ref name="ref8"/>

====Perception of taste====
The sensory cells collect all information about the taste. The results are then transmitted directly to the brain via extra nerve fibers and cranial nerves. There they are evaluated and combined with the information from the olfactory sense. Because only together with the smell can we really taste it.<ref name="ref9"/>

Therefore sensory data forms our perceptual reality.

===Limitation of the human perception===
Human perception is limited by the limited capacity of human receptors. For example, the eyes can only absorb a very limited frequency range of light. In contrast to some animals, hearing is also limited (e.g.: bats, ultrasonic range). This limitation affects not only the perception but also the ability to react in various external situations. In addition to the limitations of hearing and seeing, the limitation of human perception has further limitations. For example the perception of the skin in this area is also very limited. A shark can perceive the minimalist movement of a fish via its lateral sensory organs, which are transmitted through water. The sense of smell animals such as sharks regarding blood or of some insects in the area of the perception of pheromones already shows a perception in the molecular area. The sense of smell is tightly networked with the sense of smell. In this category of perception, too, humans are inferior to many animals. In comparison to some animal species, humans cannot perceive electromagnetic fields. These examples show the limitations of the human perception. The limitation of man culminates in the limitation of his ability to think. This can be seen for example, in the limited ability to think, since when looking for solutions to problems one usually turns in a circle that is difficult to get out of. It is assumed that computers will reach performance of our brains by 2030 (the performance of a computer will double every 1-2 years)<ref name="ref10"/>. Through all these limitations, the human being is determined within its „self“ and „being“.

===Feelings and emotions===
Ones current emotional state often has a strong impact on their perception. Feelings and emotions may arise for multiple reasons. Be it an interaction, reaction, an experience or a hormonal setting.
The endocrine system regulates everything exerting its influence over the cells. It relies on interactions between glands, hormones and cell receptors. In order to manage balance within the body.
Mood hormones can influence the production of certain chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. When chemical levels shift, they also cause changes in mood. Humans behaviors are collectively shaped by a variety of influences, the brain and its neurotransmitters, hormones and various social factors <ref name="ref11"/>.Therefore hormones hugely affect ones emotions, for example serotonin as the happiness hormone and progesterone for calming.

===Perceptional focus===
The human being has the ability to focus his perception. If one is in danger, for example, and a lot of adrenaline is released, his perception of external influences is documented. Therefore his perception focuses on hearing, seeing and smelling. Other perceptions, especially in the area of the emotional level, are largely faded out with the exception of the fearful feeling in a panic situation. Through the adrenaline rush, even the sense of pain may be temporarily eliminated. This is a result of the humans survival instincts.
The same goes for other focus situations. When focused while working on a piece of work, external perceptions, such as hearing and smelling are faded out. And when asleep, emotional impressions and experiences in particular are processed, possibly resulting in certain events in ones dreams.

===The stages of Perception===
# Stimulation
# Organization
# Interpretation
# (Memory)
# (Recall)

===Social perception===
The process of making judgments about other people is called social perception. During the first impression this process happen already, the so-called primacy effect. Later, this judgment can harden further through so-called summation and implicit personality theories.
This subfield has a special place in scientific psychology and social research, because social perception or judgment determines how one views, turns toward, or rejects other people.<ref name="ref12"/>

==Philosophy of Perception==

====Beholders share====
The Beholders share regards the perception of a piece of art. Sensory input such as the colours, visual patterns, shapes or scenery of the art has a considerable impact on its perception. Prior expectations can change the conscious seeing of the art piece and therefore edit the perception. The importance of context is in this scope is worth the mention. As information about the life of the artist and knowing the artists other work can heavily change the interpretation of the artwork . The artists anticipated context and interpretation of his work is often different to the observers. A lack of context can therefore completely change the effect and perception of art.

===Perceptions===
====Internal Perception====
Internal Perception depicts about the internal world of a being, the world within the body. Feelings and information about ones body (e.g. positions, organic functions) falls into this category.
====External Perception====
External Perception describes the world outside of the body. Therefore we use our senses such as hearing, smelling and touching to perceive the external world.
====Mixed Internal and External Perception====
Mixed Internal and External Perception is the result of what is going on within and outside of the body (e.g. emotions, certain moods).

===Epistemological Dualism===
====Direct Realism====
Direct realism is a theory of perception and the counter to indirect realism. Stating that immediate objects exist mind-independently. These objects have specific properties (e.g. color, size) which are perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and their properties are perceived directly.
====Indirect Realism====
Indirect realism states that though physical objects are mind-indipendent, it is being perceived. Therefore physical objects exist and the objects physical properties generate perceptions in the mind.
As a representative of indirect realism, John Locke, in his essay 'An essay Concerning Human understanding'(1690), draws a distinction between ideas and qualities. He claims, that one does not perceive an object but rather an idea of said object. According to Locke and indirect realism what one perceives is an intermediary between object and perceiver.<ref name="ref13"/><ref name="ref14"/>

===The Causal Theory of perception===
The Causal Theory of Perception claims, that when a perceiver sees an object, the object causes the perceiver to visually experience the object.<ref name="ref15"/>

===Components of perception===
According to Saks and Johns, perception is categorized into three components of perception, The Perceiver, The Target and The Situation.
The Perceiver is influenced by external and internal factors, which affect the perceivers perception of the target.
The target is being interpreted. It is possible, that prior expectations impact this interpretation as well as „ambiguous targets [being] especially susceptible to interpretation and addition“. <ref name="ref16"/>
The Situation and it's context can heavily impact the perception. "The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target"<ref name="ref16"/><ref name="ref17"/>.

==Philosophical Views==
===Platos Allegory of the cave===
In [[Plato's Allegory of the cave]], Plato concerns himself with the perception and perspective of the individuals in the cave and the actual reality outside the cave. The allegory deals with the alienated perception of mankind. It also shows the subjectivity of human perception. The people in the cave don't see directly, but only an image of reality. The same goes for different people in our daily life, everyone takes the environment around them differently and interpretations vary, according to their own experience. A modern example of this is when interviewing whitnesses. The implicity statements in accidents for example can be widely different, every witness perceives the truth differently. Here, different descriptions of the course of the accident are often described.

The humans in the cave not wanting to leave it upon hearing about the real world also displays humans being afraid of what they don't know.
The question therefore arises whether there is a real correct perception of truth, or as Paul Watzlawick's ook title is also called, "How real is reality?".

===Dretskes Approach===
Dretske distances himself from the 'Causal Theory of Perception', introducing "a fundamental difference between causal and informational relationship".<ref name="ref18"/> He "ascribes perception to informational relations […] [and] assigns an important role to information in the explanation of the sensory and cognitive processes [allowing] him to present a clear definitionof objects of perception".<ref name="ref18"/> According to Dretske the perceived object is a component in the causal sensorial chain about which the the perception carries information.<ref name="ref18"/> The perceived object is the 'causal antecedent'of the chain as the 'object of perceptual state'. Realized as a primary representation of the object in the perceptual process.<ref name="ref18"/>

===Descartes Method of doubt - Cartesian Sceptism===
In René Descartes Method of doubt, Descartes put all beliefs, ideas, thoughts and matter in doubt. Showing his grounds, reasonings aswell as any knowledge could in fact be false. That any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt ,ay be false. Therefore showing, that if there is a way for a belief to be disapproved, the reasonings are insufficient and hence may be doubted. From this work his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" came about. As the one thimg he couldnt doubt was him doubting, thinking, and him being.
Descartes method used four main principles also kmown s Descartes four rules of logic. To accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, unless known to be true. To divide every problem into as many parts as necessary to analyze and solve the problem. To conduct ones thoughts and find the easiest solutions, from the simplest to the more complex in order to proceed. To make enumerations so complete that nothing was omitted, to list every detail of the problem.<ref name="ref19"/>

==The Problem of Perception==
===Illusion and Hallucination===
A problem of perception can be excellently described with a sentence by Nitzsche. "The truths are illusions, of which one has forgotten that they are some"<ref name="ref20"/>. To the problem of perceptual illusion comes the problem of perceptual hallunization.
If the perception is clouded by illusions and hallunizations, how can a real direct perception of the world be possible?Answers to this question could be provided by the main theories of experience.<ref name="ref21"/>

===Intentionalism===
Intentionalism is the theory that a literal work should be judged in terms of the authors intentions. That the meaning of texts is determined by the intentions of the author. The intent is not only important in writing but also interactions and other parts of perception. Ones intentions can hugely impact the reality of a situation, which may not be perceived rightfully, due to a lack of context and known intent. Knowing the intend is unavoidable to fully understand the reality. If intentions are not known the perception of subjects cannot be considered reality. Therefore intent is a major part to perceiving reality.
===Adverbialism===
Adverbialism is a theory that describes how people actually receive and feel events.
The focus is more on the experience of the object than on the object itself.
For example, if a person sees a red object, then he sees this object from a certain perspective in his experience rather than the object itself, in this case he senses the object redly.
It should be said that the experience in this case is the red object, but that the experience has been modified so that the experience relates to redness.
To summarize, the experience that is gathered is not summarized in a verb but by an adverb.
The Adverbialism also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
===The Sensum Datum Theory===
The Sensum Datum Theory says that, every experience sensed with the senses, has an object that represent it.
This concept of receiving experience is called the act-object conception.
The act-object conception also distinct between the mental act of an object being represented and the object, that is being represented.
In other word the sense datum theory explains that an object a with the qualities of b, that can be sensed with one of the five senses, like the color or the form consist in is presented with the actual quality of f.
The example object would be a red tomato.
This objects of the perception are referred as the sense-data.
In summary, the sensory experience of an object in the Sensum Datum Theory can be anything that is currently represented, which imprints the perceptible sensual quality of the object into the experience.
The Sensum Datum Theory also endorsed the Common Kind Claim.
==References==
<references>
<ref name="ref1"> Cherry, Kendra (July 09, 2020). What Is Perception?. In ''Verywell Mind'', Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.verywellmind.com/perception-and-the-perceptual-process-2795839].</ref>
<ref name="ref2"> Tiffee, Sean (2016). Mind the gap between perception and reality. ''TEDx Talks''. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BL9uRJpTqY]</ref>
<ref name="ref3"> Weber, E. H. (1851). ''Die Lehre vom Tastsinne und Gemeingefühle auf Versuche gegründet''. Berlin: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn.</ref>
<ref name="ref4"> Gibson, J.J. (1966). ''The senses considered as perceptual systems''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
<ref name="ref5"> Fleer, S.; Moringen, A.; Klatzky, R.L.; Ritter, H. (2020). Learning efficient haptic shape exploration with a rigid tactile sensor array.
''PLoS ONE'', 15(1): e0226880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226880</ref>
<ref name="ref6"> O’Callaghan, Casey (2021). Auditory Perception. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrived January 28, 2022, from [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-auditory/].</ref>
<ref name="ref7"> Manzini, I.; Frasnelli, J.; Croy, I. (2014). Wie wir riechen und was es für uns bedeutet:
Grundlagen des Geruchssinns [How we smell and what it means to us: basic principles of the sense of smell].
''HNO'', 62(12):846-52. German. doi: 10.1007/s00106-014-2925-2. PMID: 25315675.</ref>
<ref name="ref8"> Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, E. (n.d.). Hintergrund: Mensch "Der menschliche Geruchssinn". In Planet-Schule. Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
[https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html#:~:text=Das%20bedeutet%3A%20Beim%20Riechen%20wird%20ein%20chemisches%20Signal,die%20Geruchsinformation%20in%20die%20elektrische%20Sprache%20des%20Gehirns Article in Planet-Schule website].</ref>
<ref name="ref9"> Schwetzke, B. (coord.) (2018). Wie funktioniert... der Geschmackssinn?. In ''Kindersache'', Deutschen Kinderhilfswerkes e.V.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://www.kindersache.de/bereiche/wissen/natur-und-mensch/wie-funktioniert-der-geschmackssinn].</ref>
<ref name="ref10"> Olsberg, Karl (Dec. 03, 2015). ''Erreichen Computer 2030 die Leistungsfähigkeit unseres Gehirns?'' In Worte für den Wandel.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from [https://karl-olsberg.jimdo.com/2015/12/03/erreichen-computer-2030-die-leistungsfähigkeit-unseres-gehirns/]. </ref>
<ref name="ref11"> TED-Ed.(2018): How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce. YouTube, 21.06.2018, 20.12.2021, in: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SPRPkLoKp8). </ref>
<ref name="ref12"> Mathias Mücke: "Soziale Wahrnehmung: Bedeutung, Definition, Einflussgrößen, Fehler & Verzerrungen",
(https://sciodoo.de/psychologie-soziale-wahrnehmung-bedeutung-definition/), 02.01.2022.</ref>
<ref name="ref13"> []: Indirect realism, in John Locke: A critical assessment of the representationalist theory of perception
(https://nairaproject.com/projects/3670.html).</ref>
<ref name="ref14"> Amy Trumpeter: What is the difference between Direct Realism and Indirect Realism?(2015)
(https://www.philosophyzer.com/direct-realism-and-indirect-realism/).</ref>
<ref name="ref15"> Steven J. Vitali:
"Kant's Refutation of Idealism, the Analogies of Experience, and Transcendental Idealist Constraints on the Causal Theory of Perception",</ref>
<ref name="ref16"> []: Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf)</ref>
<ref name="ref17"> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (https://explorable.com/perception).</ref>
<ref name="ref18"> José María Díaz, Mario Perez-Montoro: Is Information a Sufficient Basis for Cognition? Part 1: Critique of Dretske's Approach,
1.3. Perception, 2011, triple C - Cognition Communication Co-operation</ref>
<ref name="ref19"> Rules for the Direction of the Mind work by Descartes, (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rules-for-the-Direction-of-the-Mind)</ref>
<ref name="ref20"> Hervé Le Tellier: Die Anomalie. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 2. Auflage Septemper 2021, page 321.</ref>
<ref name="ref21"> Crane, Tim and Craig French, "The Problem of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/perception-problem/>.</ref>
</references>
==Bibliography==
Tim Crane; Craig French.(March 8, 2005); Imagery and Imagination, Retrieved December 28, 2022, from
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem].

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