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Draft:Why Is Anarchist Society Utopic?

2025-12-16T16:43:48Z

Axax30al: Final changes to wording and bibliography.

“Disorder, chaos, anarchy: now that's fun!” – says Top Dollar in 1994 movie The Crow<ref>IMDb. (n.d.). ''The Crow: Quotes.'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0109506/quotes/</ref>. There is nothing wrong with that, right? But here is the problem: anarchism is indeed perceived as something “fun”: pure chaotic disorder with no restrictions to do anything. This point being the most adopted creates a need for proper discussion on what anarchy really is – and why, for better or worse, it is rather utopic for a modern society. “Why Is Anarchist Society Utopic?” article investigates anarchism as a socio-political model, which is historically rooted in anti-authoritarian traditions: elimination and further no need for government or any other type of authority, voluntary cooperation and self-governance among individuals and groups.

Historically, anarchist ideas have inspired multiple movements and experiments in stateless or semi-stateless communities, yet such experiments have collapsed under internal contradictions or external pressures. In our contemporary '''[[Information society (preliminary)|information society]]''', cyber-anarchism, digital decentralisation and “'''[[Crypto-anarchism|crypto-anarchist]]'''” visions seem to offer a new chance for anarchist structures. Nevertheless, the same technological networks that seem to decentralise power often create new forms of domination: through surveillance, algorithmic control, data extraction and corporate monopolies. Beyond structural and socio-economic problems, deep psychological, cultural and moral obstacles prevent broad adoption of anarchist social forms.

Drawing on classical anarchist writers (such as Peter Kropotkin and Mikhail Bakunin), critical social theory (notably Herbert Marcuse), and existential-moral critique inspired by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the article argues why anarchist society remains a utopia: not because its ideals are incoherent, but because human societies and human natures are not yet prepared for the depth of freedom, responsibility and solidarity it requires.

== Historical Background ==

=== Origins of Anarchist Ideology ===
Most of the people mistakenly match anarchy with chaos: no government to control citizens’ actions will necessarily result in criminal mayhem, people neglecting free will and overall lack of economical and societal growth. But in fact, anarchism is structured and has purpose: abolishment of coercive institutions (state and hierarchies) and their replacement with free associations, voluntary cooperation and mutual aid. In words of Herbert Marcuse, the goal of anarchy is reorganisation of society into egalitarian and horizontal structure, allowing real democracy: freedom to govern yourself instead of freedom to choose who will govern you<ref name=":0">Marcuse, H. (1964). ''One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society''. Beacon Press. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/ebooks/marcuse/one-dimensional-man.pdf</ref>.

Among early ideologists, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (“What Is Property?”) criticises private ownership, naming it “theft” in cases of property coming into possession through wealth without personal labour, because it leads to exploitation and inequality<ref>Proudhon, P. J. (1840). ''What is Property?'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/</ref>. Anarchy borrows his idea of property distribution and its usage among workers in self-managed groups.

Mikhail Bakunin in his “God and the State” work proclaims the need to abolish any type of coercive external governance, such as the state and religion, and advocates for a society based on voluntary association, mutual aid and decentralised self-governance, where individuals cooperate freely without being forced externally<ref>Bakunin, M. (1882). ''God and the State.'' Dover. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/michail-bakunin-god-and-the-state</ref>. Emma Goldman was of a similar opinion: her core idea in “Anarchism and Other Essays” is that true liberation requires discontinuation of government, patriarchy and certain social norms in order to foster individual freedom, voluntary cooperation, mutual respect and social well-being (including feminism)<ref>Goldman, E. (1910). ''Anarchism and Other Essays.'' Mother Earth Publishing Association. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-anarchism-and-other-essays</ref>.

Peter Kropotkin has later expanded these ideas towards collectivism and collective freedom. His work “Mutual Aid” declared that cooperation, and not competition, is the primary driver of evolution<ref>Kropotkin, P. (1902). ''Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.'' McClure Phillips & Co. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kropotkin-peter/1902/mutual-aid/index.htm</ref>. In the end, it is mutual support, empathy and voluntary association within species that foster social institutions – exactly the core pillars of anarchism.

=== Historical Examples of Anarchist Societies ===
Anarchist ideology is not limited to just writing and has shown concrete attempts to implement the anarchist ideas through workers' unions, revolts and even revolutions.

For example, workers’ Paris Commune (1871) experimented with self-management and decentralised democracy. Just 72 days was enough to elect representatives, equalise wages, abolish army and police and implement progressive anti-religious and social policies<ref>Britannica Editors. (2025, November 19). ''Commune of Paris''. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Commune-of-Paris-1871</ref>. Later Karl Marx viewed the Commune as a form of “dictatorship of the proletariat” that proved the necessity to replace the existing bourgeois state machine with temporary workers' government. At the same time, Mikhail Bakunin believed that the community members did not act radically enough against the idea of authority itself, and that any form of state, even a workers' state, would inevitably lead to a new form of oppression. Similarly, during the Russian Civil War, the Free Territory (Ukraine) (1918–1921), associated with Nestor Makhno, attempted a stateless community. The society promoted free agricultural communes, local decision-making councils and mutual aid<ref>Makhnovshchina. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhnovshchina</ref>. Although, the society was later criticised by anarchism ideologists for, among other things, the lack of true statelessness and repressions.

Another social revolution happened in Spain and was given a name of Revolutionary Catalonia (1936–1939). This society was based on principles of self-management, equality and mutual aid, where decisions were made through worker assemblies and local committees, such as The CNT (National Confederation of Labour) and FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation)<ref>Revolutionary Catalonia. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Catalonia</ref>. Murray Bookchin (“The Spanish Anarchists”) and George Orwell (“Homage to Catalonia”) saw the commune as a basis for future revolutionary movements, demonstrating the feasibility of a stateless and classless society organised around common ownership<ref>Bookchin, M. (1978). ''The Spanish Anarchists.'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/murray-bookchin-the-spanish-anarchists</ref><ref>Revolting, C. (2016, July 15). ''Homage to Catalonia: the working class in the saddle.'' Revolutionary Socialism in the 21st Century. https://revsoc21.uk/2016/07/15/homage-to-catalonia-the-working-class-in-the-saddle/#:~:text=He%20is%20actively%20involved%2C%20he,were%20now%20in%20the%20saddle%E2%80%A6%E2%80%9D</ref>. The most significant criticism of the revolution, however, covers coercion in collectivisation and propaganda.

These historical examples, along with many smaller communal movements, show the real social potential of anarchism, stretching beyond just theory. Nevertheless, across these experiments, anarchism remains utopic: anarchist forms have almost always eventually collapsed due to external pressure or war, internal divisions or economic instability.

=== Philosophical Foundations: Freedom and Authority ===

==== Negative Freedom vs. Positive Freedom ====
Anarchism as a leftist political movement places freedom at the top of its list of values. And while from the first glance it may seem that anarchy gives people freedom ''from'' interference, mostly governmental, (also called “Negative freedom”) – social anarchism emphasises “Positive freedom”, the freedom ''to'': to act and self-determine. This dual approach ensures freedom isn't just abstract but real for everyone. Anarchists view hierarchical authority (state, capital, class) as the opposite to true human freedom, because it deprives people of self-consciousness and critical thinking<ref>Solarpunk Anarchist. (n.d.). ''The Social Anarchist Conception of Freedom.'' https://solarpunkanarchists.com/2016/02/24/the-social-anarchist-conception-of-freedom/#:~:text=Just%20as%20negative%20freedom%20justifies,also%20something%20more%20than%20that</ref>.

Yet human nature and social psychology introduce challenges. On one hand, classical anarchists like Kropotkin argued that cooperation and mutual aid are in reality not utopian fantasies but are rooted in evolutionary and social realities.

==== The Problem of One-Dimensional Society ====
On the other hand, modern anarchist ideologists highlight that advanced industrial societies are built in a way that weaken individual capacities for autonomy, solidarity and resistance. In “One-Dimensional Man”, Herbert Marcuse argues that societies create "false freedoms" through mass media, advertising and consumer culture, that serve to integrate individuals into a system of total control. In simple words, while being presented as a freedom of vote, the system in fact only lets people to choose their “masters” among pre-defined options, which means people become forcibly integrated into the social order not through coercion but through consent<ref name=":0" />.<blockquote>''“Free election of masters does not abolish the masters or the slaves”'' – Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, 1964<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>For Marcuse, “false freedom” is simply perceived by people as comfortable and safe, which helps governments use it as a mask for domination in order to eliminate any revolutionary potential. This means, even if anarchist ethics are theoretically coherent, the established psychological and structural frameworks make the realisation of true autonomy extremely difficult.

== The Utopia Regarding The Information Society ==
Modern [[The anarchist shaping of technology|technological development]] may bring up a new question: could the achievements of an information society, learning from historical difficulties of sustaining anarchist communes, give birth to anarchism in new, achievable forms? The reasons to assume so include the rise of digital decentralisation, peer production and cryptographic networks.

=== Digital Decentralisation as a Neo-Anarchist Dream ===

==== Early Cyber-Utopianism ====
At the dawn of the Internet certain political activists believed that digital networks could reimagine traditional authority system. This wave of cyber-utopianism was reflected in John Perry Barlow’s “Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace”: cyberspace was named a new realm beyond traditional view of government, free from physical borders and hierarchies and, vice versa, truly self-governing. The society was expected to erase physical regulations like property, speech and identity rules, eliminating any prejudice by race, economic power or station of birth<ref>Barlow. J. P. (1996). ''A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace.'' Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence</ref>.

Later in the 1990s, cyberspace appeared as a network where no single member could dominate. Ideologists such as Howard Rheingold popularised the idea of “virtual communities” capable of organising themselves outside traditional political structures. In this sense, the early Internet seemed to overlap cyber-utopianism with neo-anarchism by offering tools to coordinate societies without government and borders<ref>Zuegel, D. (2021). ''Howard Rheingold on the past and present of virtual communities.'' Notion. Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.notion.com/blog/howard-rheingold</ref>.

==== Peer Production and Commons as Anarchist Structures ====
The rise ofdigital tools that enabled peer production influenced the new wave of anarchist idea of mutual aid and voluntary participation: systems, in which large and physically separated groups collaborate to create shared resources outside of market or state control, became widely available. One of the most well-known examples is Wikipedia, a global knowledge storage voluntarily created and maintained by ordinary users. Transparency and absence of hierarchy, its key concepts, in many ways embody ideas familiar with anarchist theory, such as collective ownership and decentralised decision-making. Similarly, the Open-source Software Movement demonstrates how complex infrastructure can be built through voluntary labour and peer review to achieve equal access<ref>CodeSource. (2024, November 9). The Story of Open Source. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVuul3zWj3g&t=262s</ref>. The Creative Commons ecosystem as a way for creators to easily and freely share their works and for others to use them with certain rules challenges the established capitalist model of intellectual property, proposing the idea that cultural production belongs to the community<ref>Schmitz, J. (n.d.). ''What do Creative Commons licenses offer?'' Publisso. https://www.publisso.de/en/advice/publishing-advice-faqs/creative-commons#:~:text=Creative%20Commons%20(CC)%20is%20a,case%2Dby%2Dcase%20basis</ref>.

=== Anarchist Thought in Crypto, Blockchain and DAOs ===
The rise of blockchain technologies, cryptocurrencies and Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) represents digital decentralisation in a different way, proposing “trust without authority” by replacing certain frameworks defined by state. To begin with, cryptocurrencies can be viewed as an attempt to bypass state monetary systems, providing individuals with financial autonomy. Likewise, DAOs promise governance without leaders: rules are embedded in transparent code, while participants collectively vote on common decisions.

This trend, however, reveals significant tensions. David Golumbia (“The Politics of Bitcoin”) argues on “libertarian distortions” of anarchism, mostly because the core ideas of crypto were drawn from right-wing anti-government ideology: there appears a conflict between anarchism’s focus on mutual aid, cooperation and social equality and libertarianism’s emphasis on property rights and market supremacy<ref>Golumbia, D. (2016). ''The Politics of Bitcoin: Software as Right-Wing Extremism''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/17530350.2017.1322997</nowiki> </ref>. Furthermore, DAOs in practice often centralise power among large token holders.

=== Digital Anonymity, Hacktivism and [[Crypto-anarchism|Cyber-Anarchism]] ===
Modern anarchist activism is often reflected in hacktivist and transparency-enforcing movements. Groups like Anonymous, with their fluid organisational structure, decentralised decision-making and emphasis on direct action, represent a form of digital anarchism. Their operations, such as DDoS attacks and political interventions, are conducted without formal leaders and are guided by shared goals<ref>Anonymous (hacker group). (n.d.). ''Wikipedia.'' Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_(hacker_group)</ref>. Then, WikiLeaks created a platform that bypassed traditional media gatekeepers and as a result reduced power centralisation<ref>WikiLeaks. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia.'' Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiLeaks</ref>. The Guerilla open-access movement, represented by figures such as Aaron Swartz, advocated that academic knowledge should be free for all. Swartz’s “Guerilla Open Access Manifesto” explicitly names the enclosure of information a moral injustice. He challenges institutional control over knowledge, positioning equal access to digital information as a human right<ref>Swartz, A. (2008). ''Guerilla Open Access Manifesto''. https://ia800101.us.archive.org/1/items/GuerillaOpenAccessManifesto/Goamjuly2008.pdf</ref>. Gabriella Coleman (“Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous”) has shown how hacker collectives operate through non-hierarchical organisation and shared technical norms, value autonomy, transparency and resistance<ref>Backe, E. L. (2015). ''Review of Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous by Gabriella Coleman.'' The Geek Anthropologist. https://thegeekanthropologist.com/2015/05/02/review-of-hacker-hoaxer-whistleblower-spy-the-many-faces-of-anonymous/</ref>.

However, these movements also reveal a key limitation: they only disrupt power rather than replacing it. Anonymous can mobilise globally within hours, but it cannot maintain sustained governance. WikiLeaks exposed systemic injustices but faced internal power conflicts. Open-access Guerrilla movement highlights inequality but cannot replace academic publishing systems.

=== Why the Information Society Makes Anarchy Look Possible ===
Digital networks create an illusion of equality and flattened hierarchy. In reality, democratic environment with equal distribution of visibility and voice are legitimate only online, which reinforces the belief that the Internet naturally leads to non-hierarchical societies. But power in fact is still centralised around servers, platforms and algorithms, and the architecture of the information society privileges those who control over them. As Shoshana Zuboff’s “The Age of Surveillance Capitalism” demonstrates, society is built in a way that praises the widespread collection and commercialisation of personal data by corporations, which means data-driven platforms indeed concentrate various forms of control in corporate hands. Zuboff notes that [[Critical Theory of Information|surveillance capitalism]] extends beyond the realm of private firms and transforms into accumulating not only assets, but rights, which draw parallels with government surveillance<ref>Whitehead, M. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism - A Review Essay. ''Antipode'', 1. https://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/30702597/Book_review_Whitehead_on_Zuboff.pdf</ref>.

The paradox is clear: the more technologically decentralised the network is, the more socially centralised the power becomes. For example, global corporations, such as Meta and Amazon, control communication channels for billions of people. Cloud infrastructure, app ecosystems and advertising networks do not abolish authority, but reassemble it in new forms. Therefore, the information society makes anarchism feel possible because it visibly democratises social interaction, but it simultaneously strengthens hidden systems of governance and surveillance.

== Dystopical Aspects ==
As we have seen through historical examples and modern frameworks, anarchist society may seem to have quite a promising potential. Still, certain structural, psychological and moral barriers keep such a society [[Utopia (preliminary)|utopic]] (impossible), with some aspects even viewed as [[Dystopia (preliminary)|dystopic]] (extremely unfavourable).

=== Human Psychological Barriers ===

==== Preference for Authority ====
The core idea of anarchism is freedom without authority, although it is believed that people simply see stability and predictability in abiding to certain government or hierarchy. In "Escape from Freedom", Erich Fromm argues that individuals are likely to perceive freedom from authority and freedom to be your own law not as liberation, but as a source of anxiety. This happens due to the fact that after the abolition of traditional authorities, such as government or religion, people are confronted with responsibility for their own choices and actions, which is usually avoided. In this sense, authority takes over this burden of decision-making, and many people would rather choose to escape this freedom by submitting to new forms of authority. Fromm even suggests that after society is liberated from traditional authority, under stress and uncertainty, it may lean towards even more authoritarian power sources<ref>Fromm, E. (1941). ''Escape from Freedom.'' Farrar & Rinehart. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://edarcipelago.com/classici/erichfromm/escape%20from%20freedom%20-%20erich%20fromm.pdf</ref>.

Continuing, Marcuse argues that individuals in modern capitalist society are internally shaped by ideology through mass media, consumer culture, competition and bureaucracy to desire exactly what government brings them: consumption, comfort and hierarchy. For this society, anarchy is not only unrealistic, but irrational and inconvenient. Furthermore, such “propaganda” deprives humans of revolutionary thinking alongside with ability to see positive in mutual aid and collective governance<ref name=":0" />.

==== The Fear of Freedom and Responsibility ====
Freedom is viewed as a burden and not clearly liberating as well in the novel “Demons” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, where the author illustrates psychological unpreparedness for radical freedom. The fear of inner freedom and responsibility is expressed in the characters’ desire for radical ideas to relieve themselves of the burden of personal choice and moral responsibility, which leads to chaos, destruction and obsession. Ideological “anxiety” is preferred to true freedom and responsibility for their lives and actions, while the desire for “liberation” through the destruction of the old world is viewed as an escape from responsibility for the creation of a new, more complex world. Having rejected God and the state, the characters are left with no own moral ideals and have to surrender to the “demons” of ideas that ultimately destroy both themselves and society<ref>Burkova, E. (2024, June 22). ''О чём на самом деле роман Ф. М. Достоевского "Бесы"?'' b17. https://www.b17.ru/article/539307/</ref>.

According to Dostoevsky, the lack of compassion and responsibility can only lead not to utopia but to spiritual and social chaos. We need individual freedom, which is realised in a community, to be fully human<ref>Trepanier, L. (2022, January 26). ''Freedom Without Limits.'' Law & Liberty. https://lawliberty.org/forum/freedom-without-limits/#:~:text=Now%2C%20a%20large%20herd%20of,%2C%20as%20individuals%2C%20truly%20free</ref>. Therefore, anarchism demands not only structural transformation of society but also a profound change in human perception of self.

=== Socio-Economic Confrontations ===
Certain philosophers also consider socio-economic changes in the society, that are required to achieve anarchy, as dystopic for modern communities due to established economic inequality and geopolitical competition. First, in opposition to anarchist assumption that community is able to naturally regulate itself, Karl Polanyi (“The Great Transformation”) states that self-regulating market economy is dystopian and unnatural, because it will destroy society in an effort to commodify labour, land and money. He sees forced liberation as a source of poverty and inequality, which would, said once again, lead to an extremist countermovement, like fascism<ref>Polanyi, K. (1944). The Great Transformation. Farrar & Rinehart. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://economicsociology.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/the-great-transformation-pdf-free.pdf</ref>.

Second, Garrett Hardin contradicted Peter Kropotkin’s idea of mutual aid as a natural tendency in his work “The Tragedy of the Commons”. He believes that individuals in a society powered by mutual collaboration and shared resources will tend to maximise their personal gain from these shared and unregulated resources, which will lead to overuse and further to collapse of the society<ref>Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. ''Science'', 162(3859), 1243-1248. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://math.uchicago.edu/~shmuel/Modeling/Hardin,%20Tragedy%20of%20the%20Commons.pdf</ref>. Thus, collective sustainability is only possible under coordination.

In conclusion, anarchism requires complex changes in mindset and the operating way of modern societies. Taking together the aspects mentioned above, it would be essential to de-commodify the recourses in general in order to allow voluntary cooperation, as well as assure deep cultural and ethical transformation of human nature towards altruism.

== Note on AI Usage ==
Artificial Intelligence (ChatGPT; OpenAI; GPT-4o) was used to assist in structuring my article, as well as to propose relevant and openly accessible sources in addition to my opinions and the short original list of books I had. Additionally, AI (Google Gemini) was used to clarify certain complex terms and concepts related to the topic. Apart from those, the work, its core ideas and chapters conclusions are my own.

== References ==

Draft:Why Is Anarchist Society Utopic?

2025-12-15T19:17:47Z

Axax30al: I made design changes as well as put more links to GlossaLAB articles.

“Disorder, chaos, anarchy: now that's fun!” – says Top Dollar in 1994 movie The Crow<ref>IMDb. (n.d.). ''The Crow: Quotes.'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0109506/quotes/</ref>. There is nothing wrong with that, right? But here is the problem: anarchism is indeed perceived as something “fun”: pure chaotic disorder with no restrictions to do anything. This point being the most adopted creates a need for proper discussion on what anarchy really is – and why, for better or worse, it is rather utopic for a modern society. “Why Is Anarchist Society Utopic?” article investigates anarchism as a socio-political model, which is historically rooted in anti-authoritarian traditions: elimination and further no need for government or any other type of authority, voluntary cooperation and self-governance among individuals and groups.

Historically, anarchist ideas have inspired multiple movements and experiments in stateless or semi-stateless communities, yet such experiments have collapsed under internal contradictions or external pressures. In our contemporary '''[[Information society (preliminary)|information society]]''', cyber-anarchism, digital decentralisation and “'''[[Crypto-anarchism|crypto-anarchist]]'''” visions seem to offer a new chance for anarchist structures. Nevertheless, the same technological networks that seem to decentralise power often create new forms of domination: through surveillance, algorithmic control, data extraction and corporate monopolies. Beyond structural and socio-economic problems, deep psychological, cultural and moral obstacles prevent broad adoption of anarchist social forms.

Drawing on classical anarchist writers (such as Peter Kropotkin and Mikhail Bakunin), critical social theory (notably Herbert Marcuse), and existential-moral critique inspired by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the article argues why anarchist society remains a utopia: not because its ideals are incoherent, but because human societies and human natures are not yet prepared for the depth of freedom, responsibility and solidarity it requires.

== Historical Background ==

=== Origins of Anarchist Ideology ===
Most of the people mistakenly match anarchy with chaos: no government to control citizens’ actions will result in criminal mayhem, people neglecting free will and overall lack of economical and societal growth. But in political theory, anarchism is structured and has purpose: abolishment of coercive institutions (state and hierarchies) and their replacement with free associations, voluntary cooperation and mutual aid. In words of Herbert Marcuse, the goal of anarchy is reorganisation of society into egalitarian and horizontal structure, allowing real democracy: freedom to govern yourself instead of freedom to choose who will govern you<ref name=":0">Marcuse, H. (1964). ''One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society''. Beacon Press. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/ebooks/marcuse/one-dimensional-man.pdf</ref>.

Among early ideologists, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (“What Is Property?”) criticises private ownership, naming it “theft” in cases of property coming into possession through wealth without personal labour, because it leads to exploitation and inequality<ref>Proudhon, P. J. (1840). ''What is Property?'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/</ref>. Anarchy borrows from his thoughts: Proudhon advocates for property distribution and use among workers in self-managed groups.

Mikhail Bakunin in his “God and the State” work proclaims the need to abolish any type of coercive external governance, such as the state and religion, and advocates for a society based on voluntary association, mutual aid and decentralised self-governance, where individuals cooperate freely without being forced externally<ref>Bakunin, M. (1882). ''God and the State.'' Dover. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/michail-bakunin-god-and-the-state</ref>. Emma Goldman was of a similar opinion: her core idea in “Anarchism and Other Essays” is that true liberation requires discontinuation of government, patriarchy and certain social norms in order to foster individual freedom, voluntary cooperation, mutual respect and social well-being (including feminism)<ref>Goldman, E. (1910). ''Anarchism and Other Essays.'' Mother Earth Publishing Association. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-anarchism-and-other-essays</ref>.

Peter Kropotkin has later expanded these ideas towards collectivism and collective freedom. His work “Mutual Aid” declared that cooperation is the primary driver of evolution and not competition<ref>Kropotkin, P. (1902). ''Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.'' McClure Phillips & Co. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kropotkin-peter/1902/mutual-aid/index.htm</ref>. In the end, it is mutual support, empathy and voluntary association within species that foster social institutions – exactly the core pillars of anarchism.

=== Historical Examples of Anarchist Societies ===
Anarchist ideology is not limited to just writing and has shown concrete attempts to implement the anarchist ideas through workers' unions, revolts and even revolutions.

For example, workers’ Paris Commune (1871) experimented with self-management and decentralised democracy. Just 72 days was enough to elect representatives, equalise wages, abolish army and police and implement progressive anti-religious and social policies<ref>Britannica Editors. (2025, November 19). ''Commune of Paris''. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Commune-of-Paris-1871</ref>. Later Karl Marx viewed the Commune as a form of “dictatorship of the proletariat” that proved the necessity to replace the existing bourgeois state machine with temporary workers' government. At the same time, Mikhail Bakunin believed that the community members did not act radically enough against the idea of authority itself, and that any form of state, even a workers' state, would inevitably lead to a new form of oppression. Similarly, during the Russian Civil War, the Free Territory (Ukraine) (1918–1921), associated with Nestor Makhno, attempted a stateless community. The society introduced free agricultural communes, local decision-making councils and mutual aid<ref>Makhnovshchina. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhnovshchina</ref>. Although, the society was later criticised by anarchism ideologists for, among other things, the lack of true statelessness and repressions.

Another social revolution happened in Spain and was given a name of Revolutionary Catalonia (1936–1939). This society was based on principles of self-management, equality and mutual aid, where decisions were made through worker assemblies and local committees, such as The CNT (National Confederation of Labour) and FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation)<ref>Revolutionary Catalonia. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Catalonia</ref>. Murray Bookchin (“The Spanish Anarchists”) and George Orwell (“Homage to Catalonia”) saw the commune as a vital historical model for future revolutionary movements, demonstrating the feasibility of a stateless and classless society organised around common ownership<ref>Bookchin, M. (1978). ''The Spanish Anarchists.'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/murray-bookchin-the-spanish-anarchists</ref><ref>Revolting, C. (July 15). ''Homage to Catalonia: the working class in the saddle.'' Revolutionary Socialism in the 21st Century. https://revsoc21.uk/2016/07/15/homage-to-catalonia-the-working-class-in-the-saddle/#:~:text=He%20is%20actively%20involved%2C%20he,were%20now%20in%20the%20saddle%E2%80%A6%E2%80%9D</ref>. The most significant criticism of the revolution, however, covers coercion in collectivisation and propaganda.

These historical examples, along with many smaller communal movements, show the real social potential of anarchism, stretching beyond just theory. Nevertheless, across these experiments, anarchism remains utopic: anarchist forms have almost always eventually collapsed due to external pressure or war, internal divisions or economic instability.

=== Philosophical Foundations: Freedom and Authority ===

==== Negative Freedom vs. Positive Freedom ====
Anarchism as a leftist political movement places freedom at the top of its list of values. And while from the first glance it may seem that anarchy gives people freedom ''from'' interference, mostly governmental, (also called “Negative freedom”) – social anarchism emphasises “Positive freedom”, the freedom ''to'': to act and self-determine. This dual approach ensures freedom isn't just abstract but real for everyone, reinforcing system of free association, communal ownership and mutual support. Anarchists view hierarchical authority (state, capital, class) as the opposite to true human freedom, because it deprives people of self-conscious and critical thinking<ref>Solarpunk Anarchist. (n.d.). ''The Social Anarchist Conception of Freedom.'' https://solarpunkanarchists.com/2016/02/24/the-social-anarchist-conception-of-freedom/#:~:text=Just%20as%20negative%20freedom%20justifies,also%20something%20more%20than%20that</ref>.

Yet human nature and social psychology pose challenges. On one hand, classical anarchists like Kropotkin argued that cooperation and mutual aid are in reality not utopian fantasies but are rooted in evolutionary and social realities.

==== The Problem of One-Dimensional Society ====
On the other hand, modern critical thinkers highlight that advanced industrial societies are built in a way that weaken individual capacities for autonomy, solidarity and resistance. In “One-Dimensional Man”, Herbert Marcuse argues that societies create "false freedoms" through mass media, advertising and consumer culture, that serve to integrate individuals into a system of total control. In simple words, while being presented as a freedom of vote, the system in fact only lets people to choose their “masters” among pre-defined options, which means people become forcibly integrated into the social order not through coercion but through consent<ref name=":0" />.<blockquote>''“Free election of masters does not abolish the masters or the slaves”'' – Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, 1964<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>For Marcuse, “false freedom” is simply perceived by people as comfortable and safe, which helps governments use it as a mask for domination in order to eliminate any revolutionary potential. This means, even if anarchist ethics are theoretically coherent, the established psychological and structural frameworks make the realisation of true autonomy extremely difficult.

== The Utopia Regarding The Information Society ==
Modern [[The anarchist shaping of technology|technological development]] may bring up a new question: could the achievements of an information society, learning from historical difficulties of sustaining anarchist societies, give birth to anarchism in new, achievable forms? The reasons to assume so include the rise of digital decentralisation, peer production and cryptographic networks.

=== Digital Decentralisation as a Neo-Anarchist Dream ===

==== Early Cyber-Utopianism ====
At the dawn of the Internet certain political activists believed that digital networks could reimagine traditional authority system. This wave of cyber-utopianism was reflected in John Perry Barlow’s “Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace”: cyberspace was named a new realm beyond traditional view of government, free from physical borders and hierarchies and, vice versa, truly self-governing. The society was expected to erase physical regulations like property, speech and identity rules, eliminating any prejudice by race, economic power or station of birth<ref>Barlow. J. P. (1996). ''A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace.'' Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence</ref>.

Later in the 1990s, cyberspace appeared as a network where no single member could dominate. Ideologists such as Howard Rheingold popularised the idea of “virtual communities” capable of organising themselves outside traditional political structures. In this sense, the early Internet seemed to overlap cyber-utopianism with neo-anarchism by offering tools to coordinate societies without government and borders<ref>Zuegel, D. (2021). ''Howard Rheingold on the past and present of virtual communities.'' Notion. Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.notion.com/blog/howard-rheingold</ref>.

==== Peer Production and Commons as Anarchist Structures ====
Anarchist idea of mutual aid and voluntary participation achieved prosperity from the rise of digital instruments that enabled peer production: systems, in which large and physically separated groups collaborate to create shared resources outside of market or state control, became widely available. One of the most well-known examples is Wikipedia, a global knowledge storage created and maintained by volunteers. Transparency and absence of hierarchy, its key concepts, in many ways embody ideas familiar with anarchist theory, such as collective ownership and decentralised decision-making. Similarly, the open-source software movement demonstrates how complex infrastructure can be built through voluntary labour and peer review to achieve equal access<ref>CodeSource. (2024, November 9). The Story of Open Source. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVuul3zWj3g&t=262s</ref>. The Creative Commons ecosystem as a way for creators to easily and freely share their works under flexible licenses and others use them with certain rules challenges the established capitalist model of intellectual property, proposing the idea that cultural production belongs to the community<ref>Schmitz, J. (n.d.). ''What do Creative Commons licenses offer?'' Publisso. https://www.publisso.de/en/advice/publishing-advice-faqs/creative-commons#:~:text=Creative%20Commons%20(CC)%20is%20a,case%2Dby%2Dcase%20basis</ref>.

=== Anarchist Thought in Crypto, Blockchain and DAOs ===
The rise of blockchain technologies, cryptocurrencies and Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) represents digital decentralisation in a different way, proposing “trust without authority” by replacing certain frameworks defined by state. To begin with, cryptocurrencies can be viewed as an attempt to bypass state monetary systems, providing individuals with financial autonomy. Likewise, DAOs promise governance without leaders: rules are embedded in transparent code, while participants collectively vote on common decisions.

This trend, however, reveals significant tensions. David Golumbia (“The Politics of Bitcoin”) argues on “libertarian distortions” of anarchism: the core ideas of crypto were drawn from right-wing anti-government thought, which creates a conflict between anarchism’s focus on mutual aid, cooperation and social equality and libertarianism’s emphasis on property rights and market supremacy<ref>Golumbia, D. (2016). ''The Politics of Bitcoin: Software as Right-Wing Extremism''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/17530350.2017.1322997</nowiki> </ref>. Furthermore, DAOs in practice often centralise power among large token holders.

=== Digital Anonymity, Hacktivism and [[Crypto-anarchism|Cyber-Anarchism]] ===
Beyond “official” and formal platforms, anarchist activism is often reflected in hacktivist and radical transparency movements. Groups like Anonymous, with their fluid organisational structure, decentralised decision-making and emphasis on direct action, represent a form of digital anarchism. Their operations, such as DDoS attacks and political interventions, are conducted without formal leaders and are guided by shared goals<ref>Anonymous (hacker group). (n.d.). ''Wikipedia.'' Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_(hacker_group)</ref>. Then, WikiLeaks created a platform that bypassed traditional media gatekeepers and as a result reduced power centralisation<ref>WikiLeaks. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia.'' Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiLeaks</ref>. The Guerilla open-access movement, represented by figures such as Aaron Swartz, advocated that academic knowledge should be free for all. Swartz’s “Guerrilla Open Access Manifesto” explicitly names the enclosure of information a moral injustice. He challenges institutional control over knowledge, positioning equal access to digital information as a human right<ref>Swartz, A. (2008). ''Guerilla Open Access Manifesto''. https://ia800101.us.archive.org/1/items/GuerillaOpenAccessManifesto/Goamjuly2008.pdf</ref>. Gabriella Coleman (“Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy”) has shown how hacker collectives operate through non-hierarchical organisation and shared technical norms, value autonomy, transparency and resistance<ref>Backe, E. L. (2015). ''Review of Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous by Gabriella Coleman.'' The Geek Anthropologist. https://thegeekanthropologist.com/2015/05/02/review-of-hacker-hoaxer-whistleblower-spy-the-many-faces-of-anonymous/</ref>.

However, these movements also reveal a key limitation: they are powerful but not scalable. Anonymous can mobilise globally within hours, yet it cannot maintain sustained governance. WikiLeaks exposed systemic injustices but developed internal power conflicts. Open-access guerrilla tactics highlight inequality but cannot replace academic publishing systems. Cyber-anarchism is therefore impactful but short-lived: it only disrupts power rather than replacing it.

=== Why the Information Society Makes Anarchy Look Possible ===
Digital networks create an illusion of equality and flattened hierarchy. In reality, democratic environment with equal distribution of visibility and voice are legitimate only online, which reinforces the belief that the Internet naturally leads to non-hierarchical societies. But power in fact is still centralised around servers, platforms and algorithms, and the architecture of the information society privileges those who control over them. As Shoshana Zuboff’s “The Age of Surveillance Capitalism” demonstrates, society is built in a way that praises the widespread collection and commercialisation of personal data by corporations, which means data-driven platforms indeed concentrate various forms of control in corporate hands. Zuboff notes that [[Critical Theory of Information|surveillance capitalism]] extends beyond the realm of private firms and transforms into accumulating not only assets, but rights, which draw parallels with government surveillance<ref>Whitehead, M. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism - A Review Essay. ''Antipode'', 1. https://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/30702597/Book_review_Whitehead_on_Zuboff.pdf</ref>.

The paradox is clear: the more technologically decentralised the network is, the more socially centralised the power becomes. For example, global corporations, such as Meta and Amazon, control communication channels for billions of people. Cloud infrastructure, app ecosystems and advertising networks do not abolish authority, but reassemble it in new forms. Therefore, the information society makes anarchism feel possible because it visibly democratises social interaction, but it simultaneously strengthens hidden systems of governance and surveillance.

== Dystopical Aspects ==
As we have seen through historical examples and modern frameworks, anarchist society may seem to have quite a promising potential. Still, certain structural, psychological and moral barriers keep such a society [[Utopia (preliminary)|utopic]] (impossible), with some aspects even viewed as [[Dystopia (preliminary)|dystopic]] (extremely unfavourable).

=== Human Psychological Barriers ===

==== Preference for Authority ====
The core idea of anarchism is freedom without authority, although it is believed that people simply see stability and predictability in abiding to certain government or hierarchy. In "Escape from Freedom", Erich Fromm argues that individuals are likely to perceive freedom from authority and freedom to be your own law not as liberation, but as a source of anxiety. This happens due to the fact that after the abolition of traditional authorities, such as government or religion, people are confronted with responsibility for their own choices and actions, which is usually avoided. In this sense, authority takes over this burden of decision-making, and many people would rather choose to escape this freedom by submitting to new forms of authority. Fromm even suggests that after society is liberated from traditional authority, under stress and uncertainty, people may lean towards even more authoritarian power sources<ref>Fromm, E. (1941). ''Escape from Freedom.'' Farrar & Rinehart. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://edarcipelago.com/classici/erichfromm/escape%20from%20freedom%20-%20erich%20fromm.pdf</ref>.

Continuing, Marcuse argues that individuals in modern capitalist society are internally shaped by ideology through mass media, consumer culture, competition and bureaucracy to desire exactly what government brings them: consumption, comfort and hierarchy. For this society, anarchy is not only unrealistic, but irrational and inconvenient. Furthermore, such “propaganda” deprives humans of revolutionary thinking alongside with ability to see positive in mutual aid and collective governance<ref name=":0" />.

==== The Fear of Freedom and Responsibility ====
Freedom is viewed as a burden and not clearly liberating as well in the novel “Demons” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, where the author illustrates psychological unpreparedness for radical freedom. The fear of inner freedom and responsibility is expressed in the characters’ desire for radical ideas to relieve themselves of the burden of personal choice and moral responsibility, which leads to chaos, destruction and obsession. Ideological “anxiety” is preferred to true freedom and responsibility for their lives and actions, while the desire for “liberation” through the destruction of the old world is viewed as an escape from responsibility for the creation of a new, more complex world. Having rejected God and the state, the characters are left with no own moral ideals and have to surrender to the “demons” of ideas that ultimately destroy both themselves and society<ref>Burkova, E. (2024, June 22). ''О чём на самом деле роман Ф. М. Достоевского "Бесы"?'' b17. https://www.b17.ru/article/539307/</ref>.

According to Dostoevsky, the lack of compassion and responsibility can only lead not to utopia but to spiritual and social chaos. We need individual freedom, which is realised in a community, to be fully human. <ref>Trepanier, L. (2022, January 26). ''Freedom Without Limits.'' Law & Liberty. https://lawliberty.org/forum/freedom-without-limits/#:~:text=Now%2C%20a%20large%20herd%20of,%2C%20as%20individuals%2C%20truly%20free</ref>Therefore, anarchism demands not only structural transformation of society but also a profound transformation of human perception of self.

=== Socio-Economic Confrontations ===
Certain philosophers also consider socio-economic changes in the society, that are required to achieve anarchy, as dystopic for modern society due to established economic inequality and geopolitical competition. First, in opposition to anarchist assumption that community is able to naturally regulate itself, Karl Polanyi (“The Great Transformation”) states that self-regulating market economy is dystopian and unnatural, because it will destroy society in an effort to commodify labour, land and money. He sees forced liberation as a source of poverty and inequality, which would, said once again, lead to an extremist countermovement, like fascism<ref>Polanyi, K. (1944). The Great Transformation. Farrar & Rinehart. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://economicsociology.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/the-great-transformation-pdf-free.pdf</ref>.

Second, Garrett Hardin contradicted Peter Kropotkin’s idea of mutual aid as a natural tendency in his work “The Tragedy of the Commons”. He believes that individuals in a society powered by mutual collaboration and shared resources will tend to maximise their personal gain from these shared and unregulated resources, which will lead to overuse and further to collapse of the society<ref>Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. ''Science'', 162(3859), 1243-1248. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://math.uchicago.edu/~shmuel/Modeling/Hardin,%20Tragedy%20of%20the%20Commons.pdf</ref>. Thus, collective sustainability is only possible under coordination.

In conclusion, anarchism requires complex changes in mindset and the operating way of modern societies. Taking together the aspects mentioned above, it would be essential to de-commodify the recourses in general in order to allow voluntary cooperation, as well as assure deep cultural and ethical transformation of human nature towards altruism.

== Note on AI Usage ==
Artificial Intelligence (ChatGPT; OpenAI; GPT-4o) to assist me in structuring my article, as well as to propose relevant and openly accessible sources in addition to my opinions and the short original list of books I had. Additionally, AI (Google Gemini) was used to clarify certain complex terms and complex related to the topic. Apart from those, the work, its core ideas and chapters conclusions are my own.

== References ==

Draft:Information society (preliminary)

2025-12-15T18:58:32Z

Axax30al: I added a link to my page

This section is devoted to collect the preliminary definitios one can hold about the ''information society'' concept, as a first step in a further inquire of the core concepts of political philosophy in the information age. The question "what is information society?" is posed to participants in the seminar [[Conceptual_clarifications_about_"Utopias_and_the_Information_Society"|"From Ancient Utopias to Cyberutopias. An introduction to political philosophy"]] in a very early stage. Thereafter, participants are invited to write down here their understandings of the term trying to group them in the definitions provided by other participants.

Please, '''before providing your definition take a careful look to the previous ones and ammend them if you consider necessary''', leaving a note in the discussion tab (top, left). Indeed the discussion page can be very productive in a free confrontation of the different understandings as a dialectical approach to a better common understanding.

==Preliminary definitions of the concept==
'''The Information society''' is to be understood as a society which is defined by their usage, storage and even manipulation of Information itself.

Main driver of this form of society is the advances which are made in the communication technologies as also in the science of Information itself. Therefor, the Society itself is heavily connected or rather the people in this form of Society are connected with each other. Exchanging constantly information.

This can be extremely beneficial as also extremely dangerous on the same time. While Information’s are important and the free distribution of it, helps the society itself to grow – The control of it automatically brings a lot of power to those, which control them.

Supporters of this understanding: [[user:Alexander_Prugger|Alexander Prugger]]

'''Information society''' can also be understood as a systemic framework in which the production, circulation, and governance of information constitute the core dimensions of power, identity, and economy. It is not only defined by technological infrastructure or the quantity of information processed, but by how access, control, and interpretation of information shape political agency and social order.

From this perspective, the information society represents a transformation in the logic of authority: rather than operating through visible, hierarchical institutions alone, power becomes embedded in algorithmic systems, data flows, and platform architectures. As seen in [[Orwell's "1984"|Orwell’s 1984]] and in modern critiques such as Zuboff’s surveillance capitalism, the control over information can redefine truth, freedom, and autonomy.

Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Simon Zass | Simon Zass]]

'''Information society''', as the name gives out, is the society that exists on information and communication tools. Individuals as the members of such a society survive on using, creating and distributing information since it has become an asset, alongside with, for example, land or money.

On one hand, digitalisation has fostered global access to information, as well as enabled information sharing across the globe. It enhanced global collaboration and created the demand for new business models. On the other hand, information is power, and the one who holds information holds power. While digitalisation made education more accessible, it created a new digital divide for those who holds access to certain information and those, who does not. Furthermore, information, as well as "fake truths" has become an instrument of propaganda: those who hold information are able to distort the reality for those, who do not hold it.

Supporters of this understanding: [[User:Axax30al|Ekaterina Klimkova]]

Draft:Information society (preliminary)

2025-12-15T18:49:01Z

Axax30al: I added my definition of Information society

Draft:Crypto-anarchism

2025-12-15T18:30:13Z

Axax30al: I added a new section on Cyber-utopianism

= Abstract =
This article takes a look on the political philosophy of crypto-anarchism, regarding connected historical and more general ideologies as well as implementations in the information society and associated utopic and dystopic aspects.

[[Category:Pages with reference errors]]

= Historical Background =
The shaping of this new political ideology is often regarded to have started with the publication of Timothy C. May's "Crypto Anarchist Manifesto" in 1988. It warns the public that new times with unseen challenges are coming and captures the utopia of truly private communication. The author predicts that technology will develop sufficiently in the following ten years to enable these dreams. May also presents counterarguments against encryption such as the usage by drug dealers and national security in general but simply states that these won't stop crypto-anarchy from becoming reality. This crypto-anarchy is described as "a liquid market for any and all material which can be put into words and pictures", clearly establishing the connection to anarcho-capitalism.
<ref> May, Timothy C. (1988). "The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto". Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/classes/6.805/articles/crypto/cypherpunks/may-crypto-manifesto.html</ref>

=== Anarchism ===
Although often associated with chaos and violence, anarchism is a fundamentally peaceful ideology based on the abolition of any form of oppression, private or state. Anarchism seeks to protect individual freedom and sees hierarchy in any form as harmful. It can alternatively be described as libertarian socialism since both capitalism and the state are regarded as coercive forces harming the natural order. Anarchism has a series of subcategories defining different philosophies, but their common ground is in the liberation of the individual. Anarchists perceive the state as a weapon of oppression and consider it illegitimate, regardless of its political leanings. Major decisions are made by a small elite, rather than people having power over their own lives. Authority is ultimately based on power, regardless of how open or transparent that authority is, because it still has the ability to coerce others. Another anarchist argument against states is that people who make up a government, even the most selfless of officials, would always crave more power, which will lead to corruption. Because the ruling class is separate from the rest of society, anarchists believe that the idea that the state is the collective will of the people is an unattainable fantasy.
<ref> Anarchism. (2022). Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism.</ref>

=== Anarcho-Capitalism ===
The term "Anarcho-Capitalism" was shaped by Murray Rothbard in the 1940s, synthesizing elements of classic liberalism, minarchism and individual anarchism. It is characterized by liberty as the core value and the rejection of any authoritarian power.
Despite the similarity in name to anarchism, anarcho-capitalists have a very different relation to property and wealth than anarchists. They argue that any limitation on or redistribution of personal property would require a public, state-like force that they reject as anti-libertarian and a violation of personal rights. A key element of anarcho-capitalist theory is the non-aggression-principle, protecting the right of every person to its own body and its property. Violence, assault, murder, and slavery are viewed as attacks on persons and therefore crimes as well as fraud, burglary, theft, and taxation which are viewed as attacks on property. The rejection of taxes concludes to a stateless society, where - in contrast to minarchism - even police, military and courts are privatized in the form of insurance companies and private mercenary armies. This way, law can continuously be enforced but the former public sectors are integrated in the free market, the central instrument maximizing efficiency that anarcho-capitalists regard natural and constantly seek to achieve. Courts would compete against each other as well as security firms and private prisons. According to Murray Rothbard, Anarcho-Capitalism even includes a free market for children where adopting parents compensate the biological parents appropriately.
<ref>Anarcho-Capitalism. (2021). Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism</ref>

=== Cyber-utopianism ===
Cyber-utopianism is the common belief that the Internet and digital technology in general are primary contributors to a world, often perceived as utopic, namely a world that is democratic, free and equal, with strong global connections and new, modern power structures. In this sense, cyberspace is named to be able to become a new realm beyond traditional view of government. The ideology is well described by John Perry Barlow in his work “Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace”<ref>Zuegel, D. (2021). ''Howard Rheingold on the past and present of virtual communities.'' Notion. Retrieved December 12, 2025, from <nowiki>https://www.notion.com/blog/howard-rheingold</nowiki></ref>.

=== Cypherpunks shaping Crypto-Anarchism ===
Timothy C. May, author of "The Crypto-Anarchist Manifesto" (1988), was a founding member of the ''Cypherpunks'', a loose group of cryptography-enthusiastic libertarians connected by a mailing list since 1992. The term is a linguistic synthesis of ''cipher'' and ''cyberpunk'', describing a person pushing for widespread adoption of strong encryption and privacy-enhancing technology as a means of achieving social and political change. The mailing list was used as a forum to discuss aspects of their common ideology: crypto-anarchism. Among other things, they discussed limitations and necessities of digital cash and the politics and philosophy of concepts such as anonymity, pseudonyms, reputation, and privacy. Eric Hughes, another founding member, argues in "A Cypherpunk's Manifesto" (1993) that privacy is an absolute necessity for an open society in the information society, yet governments, companies or similar big organizations are unfit to design the needed encryption software. The ''Cyberpunk's'' quest is therefore more than theoretical: They write the software to realize their utopia, a system where every little piece of data is solely accessible with consent of the creator or owner. Members of the list were for example Julian Assange and John Young. Some ''Cypherpunks'' have filed lawsuits against governmental limitation of cryptography export controls. <ref> Cypherpunk. (2021). Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypherpunk </ref>
Satoshi Nakamoto, creator of bitcoin, published a white paper on the reasoning behind bitcoin on the ''Cypherpunk'' mailing list in 2008. <ref> McElroy, Wend (November 11, 2017). "The Satoshi Revolution - Chapter 2: Was Satoshi a Libertarian and Anarchist? (Part 4)". Bitcoin.com. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://news.bitcoin.com/satoshi-revolution-chapter-2-satoshi-libertarian-anarchist-part-4/</ref>

= What is Crypto-Anarchism? =
Crypto-Anarchism is a political ideology focusing on civil rights and privacy regarding the growing surveillance in the modern world. It seeks to weaken the state's power by strengthening the citizens as individuals. This goal should be achieved by advanced encryption technology, prohibiting government agencies from collecting any data on its citizens. Additional goals are the circumvention of censorship as well as the forming of a new free and decentralized economic and political system.
<ref>Crypto-anarchism. (2021). Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypto-anarchism </ref>

=== classification in the political spectrum ===
Despite the relationship by name, crypto-anarchism would likely not lead to an anarchist society in the traditional, Marxist way. Due to the resulting anonymity, such a system would likely impede the collection of taxes<ref>May, Timothy C. (1994). "The Cyphernomicon". Archived from the original on August 22, 2013 - Section 3.4.12. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://web.archive.org/web/20130822092045/http://www.spinnaker.com/crypt/cyphernomicon/CP-FAQ </ref> as well as the enforcement of regulations and bans or the redistribution of wealth, therefore creating an anarcho-capitalist environment. Timothy C. May himself states: "What emerges from this is unclear, but I think it will be a form of anarcho-capitalist market system I call crypto-anarchy."
<ref>May, Timothy C. (1994), "The Cyphernomicon". Archived from the original on August 22, 2013 - Section 2.3.4. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://web.archive.org/web/20130822092045/http://www.spinnaker.com/crypt/cyphernomicon/CP-FAQ </ref>
Therefore, crypto-anarchy is in the libertarian right, focusing on negative freedom (the absence of coercions) rather than the often-left-wing adjunct positive freedom (actively enabling self-realization). <ref> Positive and Negative Liberty. (November 19, 2021). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liberty-positive-negative/</ref>

=== The crypto-anarchist scene ===
The crypto-anarchist ideology is still largely developed and supported by computer-affine libertarian activists like Julian Assange or Edward Snowden. The scene has occasional meetings like the Hackers Congress at the "Institute of Crypto-Anarchy" in Prague where participants discuss recent developments relevant to crypto-anarchist goals like the growing spread of bitcoin, compare the latest anonymous and secure messaging apps like Signal and Telegram, and the decentralizing force of the growing sharing economy in various industries, namely borrowing cars, daily tasks, lending bikes, lending money, home Wi-Fi and even clothes.
<ref> Bartlett, Jamie (June 4, 2017). "Forget far-right populism – crypto-anarchists are the new masters". The Guardian. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/04/forget-far-right-populism-crypto-anarchists-are-the-new-masters-internet-politics</ref>

=== Possibilities of implementation ===
This ideology is strongly dependent of reliable encryption, a technology just a few informaticians understand today. It would therefore require either great educational efforts to enable the general public to use encryption independently or a lot of simplified software that would have to be open source and approved by neutral experts. It isn't realistically actionable on a national scale, but specialized communities can already live it today as shown in the examples below. However, many this this independence and anonymity requires a lot of work and most people prefer to exchange their data for more convenience in their everyday life. Meta, Alphabet, Amazon, and many others collect our data on every usage, yet their revenue is still increasing and with the expanse to emerging markets don't seem to stop anytime soon.
<ref> Amazon revenue 2006-2021: AMZN. Macrotrends. (2021). Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/AMZN/amazon/revenue </ref>
<ref> Meta Platforms revenue 2009-2021: FB. Macrotrends. (2021). Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/FB/meta-platforms/revenue </ref>
<ref> Alphabet revenue 2006-2021: GOOG. Macrotrends. (2021). Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/GOOG/alphabet/revenue </ref>

= Examples in the information society =

=== Blockchain ===
The first association most people have when they hear a term including "crypto" nowadays is likely to be crypto currencies, with Bitcoin as the most prominent example. Their name comes from the technology behind it, the so-called blockchain, which enables reliable peer-to-peer contracts or payments without the need of a neutral third party by using a public transaction history distributed many times. The revolutionary aspect of this technology is the possible abolition of many traditional powerful controlling systems that anarchists have been protesting for centuries, for example notaries and banks. <ref>Weingärtner, Tim (November 10, 2021). Blockchain Einfach Erklärt. Informatik an der Hochschule Luzern. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://hub.hslu.ch/informatik/blockchain-einfach-erklaert/ </ref>
Bitcoins are transferred via blockchain using special Bitcoin addresses assigned to a user’s wallet. By switching his address for every new payment, users can avoid being tracked in the blockchain lists. Combined with the blocking of IP address logging by using a tool like TOR, payments with a high degree of anonymity become possible.
<ref>Protect your privacy. Bitcoin.org. (2021). Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://bitcoin.org/en/protect-your-privacy</ref>

=== Wikileaks ===
Created by Cypherpunk Julian Assange in 2006, WikiLeaks is a non-profit-organization running an openly accessible platform where confidential documents, mostly of governments or other authoritarian institutions like the catholic church, are published ("leaked"). Its focus lies not on the protection of private communication from the state but rather on revealing information the state wants to keep from its own citizens. Ultimately, both tactics seek to bring back into balance what crypto-anarchists see as a crooked relationship between individuals and the state. They want the state to serve its citizen and not the other way round.
This radical publication of domination knowledge has as goal neither the destructive nihilism which he was accused of in the past, nor being a journalistic corrective to the current system. Instead, as ''Sueddeutsche Zeitung'' has analyzed in 2010, Assange wants to weaken what he calls "conspiracies": all authoritarian governments including several western democracies, especially the USA. By leaking important secrets, he wants to stimulate fear and paranoia between the "conspirators", making internal communication more cognitively laborious and less effective. This system-wide cognitive decline in turn leads to a decrease in their ability to hold on to power as the outside world forces them to adapt. <ref> Hofmann, Niklas (December 3, 2010). "Der Gegenverschwörer". Sueddeutsche Zeitung. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.sueddeutsche.de/digital/wikileaks-gruender-julian-assange-der-gegenverschwoerer-1.1031477-0 </ref>

=== Edward Snowden ===
Edward Snowden, at the time NSA consultant, revealed dozens of global mass surveillance programs in June 2013, many of which were run by the National Security Agency and the Five Eyes Intelligence Alliance with the help of telecom companies and European states, and sparked a cultural debate about national security and personal privacy. Snowden states that he got disillusioned with the operations with that he was part over time, and that he attempted to voice his ethical questions through internal channels but was disregarded. US officials have accused him of bringing great harm onto the national security of his country, but he argues that he felt he had to inform the public as to what extent the surveillance of the citizens in their own name has taken on. Though he is not an actively proclaimed crypto-anarchists, stickers on his laptop while leaking the documents in 2013 showed his support for the Tor Project and John Gilmore's Electronic Frontier Foundation.
<ref>Edward Snowden. (2021). Retrieved on January 2, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Snowden</ref>
A 2015 study found that only 36 % of US Americans supported his actions, while citizens in the also spied on allied countries of central Europe gave him approval ratings of over 84 %.
<ref> Nelson, Steven (April 21, 2015). "Edward Snowden Unpopular at Home, A Hero Abroad, Poll Finds". US News. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/04/21/edward-snowden-unpopular-at-home-a-hero-abroad-poll-finds </ref>
On September 2, 2020, a US federal court ruled that the bulk telephone data collection by the National Security Agency was illegal and possibly even unconstitutional.
<ref> United States v. Moalin. (2021). Retrieved on January 2, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Moalin</ref>

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=== TOR Browser ===
TOR is short for ''The Onion Router'', a privacy-focused open-source browser that directs internet traffic through a worldwide volunteer overlay network consisting of more than six thousand relays. It impedes tracking connections, messages, and the location of the user. <ref> Tor (network). (2021). Retrieved on January 1, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_(network) </ref>
The Browser is a gladly used tool for whistleblowers contacting media anonymously <ref> Ellis, Justin (June 5, 2014). "The Guardian introduces SecureDrop for document leaks". Nieman Journalism Lab. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.niemanlab.org/2014/06/the-guardian-introduces-securedrop-for-document-leaks/ </ref>
and people circumventing censorship in authoritarian countries like China or Russia. On the other hand, escaping governmental surveillance by NSA and other authorities is not only interesting for law-abiding citizens seeking privacy but also for criminals using the web to commit bank fraud <ref> Krebs, Brian (December 5, 2014). "Treasury Dept: Tor a Big Source of Bank Fraud". Krebs on Security. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/12/treasury-dept-tor-a-big-source-of-bank-fraud/</ref>,
upload child pornography <ref> Chen, Adrian (June 11, 2012). "'Dark Net' Kiddie Porn Website Stymies FBI Investigation". Gawker. Archived from the original on August 14, 2012. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.gawker.com/5916994/dark-net-kiddie-porn-website-stymies-fbi-investigation </ref>
or even arrange contract murders. <ref> Love, Dylan (March 16, 2013). "How To Hire An Assassin On The Secret Internet For Criminals". Business Insider. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.businessinsider.com/tor-assassins-and-hitmen-2013-3#anyone-communicating-with-them-will-need-this-their-public-pgp-key-this-is-a-series-of-characters-used-to-encode-a-message-such-that-only-they-can-decode-it-3</ref>
''Silk Road'' was, according to the FBI, the web's biggest anonymous drug market until the site got seized in 2013. For two and a half years, had been an Eldorado for buyers and sellers of hard drugs. Using TOR, they could easily access the site, fill a shopping cart and checkout with payment via Bitcoin. The drugs were then sent to a given address, just like with any other online shop.
<ref> Greenberg, Andy (October 2, 2013). "End Of The Silk Road: FBI Says It's Busted The Web's Biggest Anonymous Drug Black Market". Forbes. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2013/10/02/end-of-the-silk-road-fbi-busts-the-webs-biggest-anonymous-drug-black-market/?sh=268063ad5b4f </ref>
<ref> Chen, Adrian (June 1, 2011). "The Underground Website Where You Can Buy Any Drug Imaginable". Gawker. Archived from the original on June 3, 2011. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://web.archive.org/web/20110603015735/http://gawker.com/5805928/the-underground-website-where-you-can-buy-any-drug-imaginable</ref>

=== Defense Distributed ===
Cody Wilson, self-proclaimed crypto-anarchist and free-market-anarchist, founded Defense Distributed in 2012 as a non-profit organisation with the goal of endorsing private gun ownership by developing and providing online digital schematics of firearms in CAD files. These can be downloaded to build a firearm using a 3D printer or a milling machine. <ref> Defense Distributed. (2021). Retrieved on January 1, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Distributed</ref>
In 2013, Defense Distributed released their first printable firearm design, the ''Liberator''. It is a single-shot handgun lasting 8 to 10 shots when printed under the right conditions. <ref> Liberator (gun). (2021). Retrieved on January 1, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberator_(gun) </ref>
Despite the governmentally forced retract of the files from the organizations ‘’Defcad’’ website, they are still available throughout the internet on filesharing sites like The Pirate Bay. <ref>BBC News (May 10, 2013). "US government orders removal of Defcad 3D-gun designs". BBC News. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-22478310 </ref><br>
Cody Wilson says that the right to own a gun should be treated like any other right and not be limited by artificial obstacles, arguing that the second amendment of the US constitution protects the right to bear arms alongside the first amendment protecting freedom of speech and freedom of the press. This fundamental approach leads to the conclusion that even mass shootings like they are increasingly happening in the USA must be tolerated as a consequence of this constitutional right and cannot lead to a restriction of it. <ref>Dillow, Clay (December 21, 2012). "Q+A: Cody Wilson Of The Wiki Weapon Project On The 3-D Printed Future of Firearms". Popular Science. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2012-12/qa-cody-wilson-wiki-weapons-project-3-d-printed-future-firearms/</ref>

= Utopic Aspects =
Crypto-Anarchism can be largely described as Anarcho-Capitalism transferred into the information society, but with an increased focus on individual rights and powers, reducing the danger for persons to be abused by large companies since the encryption technology could also protect someone from commercial data collection common among big tech firms nowadays. However, this only fully applies if the technology is open source and not provided by another company, since that corporation could easily create loopholes to collect data anyway. <br>
Besides this specific advantage, Anarcho-Capitalism ensures maximum (negative) liberty and economic prosperity. By lifting restrictions in the business (and in the currently public) world, competition would grow, causing a wider range of offered goods, fair prices and better access to products and services.
With kings, presidents, and generals out of power, there would be no wars for power over others like today.
Private arbitration would work fast and efficient, bounty hunters and private investigators paid in bonuses might be more motivated than public police and infrastructure would have regular maintenance not delayed by parliamentary budget meetings and tedious committee discussions.
Individual freedom would be a lot better than in most societies today, with everyone being able to buy, consume and produce what he wants without moral guidelines dictated by the state.

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= Dystopic Aspects =
Governmental and corporate secrets exposed by Wikileaks or Cryptome are today already a quality source for terrorists and hostile countries, so these organizations could be made responsible for the death of people, for example spies whose identity is revealed or victims of terror attacks, sadly a consistent reality in our society. <br>
Despite the aforementioned advantages of an anarcho-capitalist society, such a political system would also cause a series of drawbacks, especially from the view of workers. Although the central control of currency currently exercised by the central banks would have been abolished, each person’s fate would continue to be determined by his wealth and the gap between poor and rich would probably get much bigger due to the lack of a welfare state. Additionally, syndicate work would be impeded since anti-discrimination rights and limited employment hours couldn’t be controlled anymore. Unemployed and disabled persons would be fully dependent of relatives, friends, or voluntary charities. Rent would be organized privately which means old people who miscalculated or lost their assets would be forced to continue working until their end of life. From an anarchist or socialist perspective, Anarcho-Capitalism and therefore also Crypto-Anarchism fail to free the individual from the capitalist coercion of dependency and hierarchy. <br>
The weakness of Anarcho-Capitalism is that its thinkers often assume virtues in the human nature that aren’t reliable in the real world. Without regulation, most companies wouldn't limit pollution and greenhouse gas emissions at all and some issues like water pipes, train tracks and streets are actually more efficient being built publicly since they would have to be built multiple times. Education would be very expensive, much like US College today, and individuals of low income without private security would have no one to turn to if they're in danger.
Since the state authorities could no longer identify and pursue criminal activities, people would have much easier access to drugs and weapons. Although many Libertarians dream of such a society, the opioid epidemic and increasingly frequent mass shootings in the USA let it seem very undesirable and call for a stronger regulation. Even generally condemned crimes like digital theft or pedophile uploads couldn't be tracked anymore, making the internet a seemingly lawless place.

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= Sources =
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Draft:Why Is Anarchist Society Utopic?

2025-12-15T18:05:18Z

Axax30al: I created the page for my article "Why is Anarchist Society Utopic?".

“Disorder, chaos, anarchy: now that's fun!” – says Top Dollar in 1994 movie The Crow<ref>IMDb. (n.d.). ''The Crow: Quotes.'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0109506/quotes/</ref>. There is nothing wrong with that, right? But here is the problem: '''anarchism''' is indeed perceived as something “fun”: pure chaotic disorder with no restrictions to do anything. This point being the most adopted creates a need for proper discussion on what anarchy really is – and why, for better or worse, it is rather utopic for a modern society. “Why Is Anarchist Society Utopic?” article investigates anarchism as a socio-political model, which is historically rooted in anti-authoritarian traditions: elimination and further no need for '''government''' or any other type of '''authority''', voluntary cooperation and self-governance among individuals and groups.

Historically, anarchist ideas have inspired multiple movements and experiments in stateless or semi-stateless communities, yet such experiments have collapsed under internal contradictions or external pressures. In our contemporary '''[[Information society (preliminary)|information society]]''', '''cyber-anarchism''', '''digital decentralisation''' and “'''[[Crypto-anarchism|crypto-anarchist]]'''” visions seem to offer a new chance for anarchist structures. Nevertheless, the same technological networks that seem to decentralise power often create new forms of domination: through surveillance, algorithmic control, data extraction and corporate monopolies. Beyond structural and socio-economic problems, deep psychological, cultural and moral obstacles prevent broad adoption of anarchist social forms.

Drawing on classical anarchist writers (such as Peter Kropotkin and Mikhail Bakunin), critical social theory (notably Herbert Marcuse), and existential-moral critique inspired by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the article argues why anarchist society remains a utopia: not because its ideals are incoherent, but because human societies and human natures are not yet prepared for the depth of freedom, responsibility and solidarity it requires.

== Historical Background ==

=== Origins of Anarchist Ideology ===
Most of the people mistakenly match anarchy with chaos: no government to control citizens’ actions will result in criminal mayhem, people neglecting free will and overall lack of economical and societal growth. But in political theory, anarchism is structured and has purpose: abolishment of coercive institutions (state and hierarchies) and their replacement with free associations, voluntary cooperation and mutual aid. In words of Herbert Marcuse, the goal of anarchy is reorganisation of society into egalitarian and horizontal structure, allowing real '''democracy''': freedom to govern yourself instead of freedom to choose who will govern you<ref name=":0">Marcuse, H. (1964). ''One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society''. Beacon Press. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/ebooks/marcuse/one-dimensional-man.pdf</ref>.

Among early ideologists, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (“What Is Property?”) criticises private ownership, naming it “theft” in cases of property coming into possession through wealth without personal labour, because it leads to exploitation and inequality<ref>Proudhon, P. J. (1840). ''What is Property?'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/</ref>. Anarchy borrows from his thoughts: Proudhon advocates for property distribution and use among workers in self-managed groups.

Mikhail Bakunin in his “God and the State” work proclaims the need to abolish any type of coercive external governance, such as the state and religion, and advocates for a society based on voluntary association, mutual aid and decentralised self-governance, where individuals cooperate freely without being forced externally<ref>Bakunin, M. (1882). ''God and the State.'' Dover. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/michail-bakunin-god-and-the-state</ref>. Emma Goldman was of a similar opinion: her core idea in “Anarchism and Other Essays” is that true liberation requires discontinuation of government, patriarchy and certain social norms in order to foster individual freedom, voluntary cooperation, mutual respect and social well-being (including feminism)<ref>Goldman, E. (1910). ''Anarchism and Other Essays.'' Mother Earth Publishing Association. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-anarchism-and-other-essays</ref>.

'''Peter Kropotkin''' has later expanded these ideas towards collectivism and collective freedom. His work “Mutual Aid” declared that cooperation is the primary driver of evolution and not '''competition'''<ref>Kropotkin, P. (1902). ''Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.'' McClure Phillips & Co. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kropotkin-peter/1902/mutual-aid/index.htm</ref>. In the end, it is mutual support, empathy and voluntary association within species that foster social institutions – exactly the core pillars of anarchism.

=== Historical Examples of Anarchist Societies ===
Anarchist ideology is not limited to just writing and has shown concrete attempts to implement the anarchist ideas through workers' unions, revolts and even revolutions.

For example, workers’ Paris Commune (1871) experimented with self-management and decentralised democracy. Just 72 days was enough to elect representatives, equalise wages, abolish army and police and implement progressive anti-religious and social policies<ref>Britannica Editors. (2025, November 19). ''Commune of Paris''. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Commune-of-Paris-1871</ref>. Later Karl Marx viewed the Commune as a form of “'''dictatorship of the proletariat”''' that proved the necessity to replace the existing bourgeois state machine with temporary workers' government. At the same time, Mikhail Bakunin believed that the community members did not act radically enough against the idea of authority itself, and that any form of state, even a workers' state, would inevitably lead to a new form of oppression. Similarly, during the Russian Civil War, the Free Territory (Ukraine) (1918–1921), associated with Nestor Makhno, attempted a stateless community. The society introduced free agricultural communes, local decision-making councils and mutual aid<ref>Makhnovshchina. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhnovshchina</ref>. Although, the society was later criticised by anarchism ideologists for, among other things, the lack of true statelessness and repressions.

Another social revolution happened in Spain and was given a name of Revolutionary Catalonia (1936–1939). This society was based on principles of self-management, equality and mutual aid, where decisions were made through worker assemblies and local committees, such as The CNT (National Confederation of Labour) and FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation)<ref>Revolutionary Catalonia. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Catalonia</ref>. Murray Bookchin (“The Spanish Anarchists”) and George Orwell (“Homage to Catalonia”) saw the commune as a vital historical model for future revolutionary movements, demonstrating the feasibility of a stateless and classless society organised around common ownership<ref>Bookchin, M. (1978). ''The Spanish Anarchists.'' Retrieved December 11, 2025, from https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/murray-bookchin-the-spanish-anarchists</ref><ref>Revolting, C. (July 15). ''Homage to Catalonia: the working class in the saddle.'' Revolutionary Socialism in the 21st Century. https://revsoc21.uk/2016/07/15/homage-to-catalonia-the-working-class-in-the-saddle/#:~:text=He%20is%20actively%20involved%2C%20he,were%20now%20in%20the%20saddle%E2%80%A6%E2%80%9D</ref>. The most significant criticism of the revolution, however, covers coercion in collectivisation and propaganda.

These historical examples, along with many smaller communal movements, show the real social potential of anarchism, stretching beyond just theory. Nevertheless, across these experiments, anarchism remains utopic: anarchist forms have almost always eventually collapsed due to external pressure or war, internal divisions or economic instability.

=== Philosophical Foundations: Freedom and Authority ===

==== Negative Freedom vs. Positive Freedom ====
Anarchism as a leftist political movement places freedom at the top of its list of values. And while from the first glance it may seem that anarchy gives people freedom ''from'' interference, mostly governmental, (also called “Negative freedom”) – social anarchism emphasises “Positive freedom”, the freedom ''to'': to act and self-determine. This dual approach ensures freedom isn't just abstract but real for everyone, reinforcing system of free association, communal ownership and mutual support. Anarchists view hierarchical authority (state, capital, class) as the opposite to true human freedom, because it deprives people of self-conscious and critical thinking<ref>Solarpunk Anarchist. (n.d.). ''The Social Anarchist Conception of Freedom.'' https://solarpunkanarchists.com/2016/02/24/the-social-anarchist-conception-of-freedom/#:~:text=Just%20as%20negative%20freedom%20justifies,also%20something%20more%20than%20that</ref>.

Yet human nature and social psychology pose challenges. On one hand, classical anarchists like Kropotkin argued that cooperation and mutual aid are in reality not utopian fantasies but are rooted in evolutionary and social realities.

==== The Problem of One-Dimensional Society ====
On the other hand, modern critical thinkers highlight that advanced industrial societies are built in a way that weaken individual capacities for autonomy, solidarity and resistance. In “One-Dimensional Man”, Herbert Marcuse argues that societies create "false freedoms" through mass media, advertising and consumer culture, that serve to integrate individuals into a system of total control. In simple words, while being presented as a freedom of vote, the system in fact only lets people to choose their “masters” among pre-defined options, which means people become forcibly integrated into the social order not through coercion but through consent<ref name=":0" />.<blockquote>''“Free election of masters does not abolish the masters or the slaves”'' – Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, 1964<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>For Marcuse, “false freedom” is simply perceived by people as comfortable and safe, which helps governments use it as a mask for domination in order to eliminate any revolutionary potential. This means, even if anarchist ethics are theoretically coherent, the established psychological and structural frameworks make the realisation of true autonomy extremely difficult.

== The Utopia Regarding The Information Society ==
Modern technological development may bring up a new question: could the achievements of an information society, learning from historical difficulties of sustaining anarchist societies, give birth to anarchism in new, achievable forms? The reasons to assume so include the rise of digital decentralisation, peer production and cryptographic networks.

=== Digital Decentralisation as a Neo-Anarchist Dream ===

==== Early Cyber-Utopianism ====
At the dawn of the Internet certain political activists believed that digital networks could reimagine traditional authority system. This wave of techno-optimism was reflected in John Perry Barlow’s “Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace”: cyberspace was named a new realm beyond traditional view of government, free from physical borders and hierarchies and, vice versa, truly self-governing. The society was expected to erase physical regulations like property, speech and identity rules, eliminating any prejudice by race, economic power or station of birth<ref>Barlow. J. P. (1996). ''A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace.'' Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence</ref>.

Later in the 1990s, cyberspace appeared as a network where no single member could dominate. Ideologists such as '''Howard Rheingold''' popularised the idea of “virtual communities” capable of organising themselves outside traditional political structures. In this sense, the early Internet seemed to overlap '''cyber-utopianism''' with '''neo-anarchism''' by offering tools to coordinate societies without government and borders<ref>Zuegel, D. (2021). ''Howard Rheingold on the past and present of virtual communities.'' Notion. Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.notion.com/blog/howard-rheingold</ref>.

==== Peer Production and Commons as Anarchist Structures ====
Anarchist idea of mutual aid and voluntary participation achieved prosperity from the rise of digital instruments that enabled peer production: systems, in which large and physically separated groups collaborate to create shared resources outside of market or state control, became widely available. One of the most well-known examples is Wikipedia, a global knowledge storage created and maintained by volunteers. Transparency and absence of hierarchy, its key concepts, in many ways embody ideas familiar with anarchist theory, such as collective ownership and decentralised decision-making. Similarly, the open-source software movement demonstrates how complex infrastructure can be built through voluntary labour and peer review to achieve equal access<ref>CodeSource. (2024, November 9). The Story of Open Source. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVuul3zWj3g&t=262s</ref>. The Creative Commons ecosystem as a way for creators to easily and freely share their works under flexible licenses and others use them with certain rules challenges the established capitalist model of intellectual property, proposing the idea that cultural production belongs to the community<ref>Schmitz, J. (n.d.). ''What do Creative Commons licenses offer?'' Publisso. https://www.publisso.de/en/advice/publishing-advice-faqs/creative-commons#:~:text=Creative%20Commons%20(CC)%20is%20a,case%2Dby%2Dcase%20basis</ref>.

=== Anarchist Thought in Crypto, Blockchain and DAOs ===
The rise of blockchain technologies, cryptocurrencies and Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) represents digital decentralisation in a different way, proposing “trust without authority” by replacing certain frameworks defined by state. To begin with, cryptocurrencies can be viewed as an attempt to bypass state monetary systems, providing individuals with financial autonomy. Likewise, DAOs promise governance without leaders: rules are embedded in transparent code, while participants collectively vote on common decisions.

This trend, however, reveals significant tensions. David Golumbia (“The Politics of Bitcoin”) argues on “libertarian distortions” of anarchism: the core ideas of crypto were drawn from right-wing anti-government thought, which creates a conflict between anarchism’s focus on mutual aid, cooperation and social equality and libertarianism’s emphasis on property rights and market supremacy<ref>Golumbia, D. (2016). ''The Politics of Bitcoin: Software as Right-Wing Extremism''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/17530350.2017.1322997</nowiki> </ref>. Furthermore, DAOs in practice often centralise power among large token holders.

=== Digital Anonymity, Hacktivism and Cyber-Anarchism ===
Beyond “official” and formal platforms, anarchist activism is often reflected in hacktivist and radical transparency movements. Groups like Anonymous, with their fluid organisational structure, decentralised decision-making and emphasis on direct action, represent a form of digital anarchism. Their operations, such as DDoS attacks and political interventions, are conducted without formal leaders and are guided by shared goals<ref>Anonymous (hacker group). (n.d.). ''Wikipedia.'' Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_(hacker_group)</ref>. Then, WikiLeaks created a platform that bypassed traditional media gatekeepers and as a result reduced power centralisation<ref>WikiLeaks. (n.d.). ''Wikipedia.'' Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiLeaks</ref>. The Guerilla open-access movement, represented by figures such as Aaron Swartz, advocated that academic knowledge should be free for all. Swartz’s “Guerrilla Open Access Manifesto” explicitly names the enclosure of information a moral injustice. He challenges institutional control over knowledge, positioning equal access to digital information as a human right<ref>Swartz, A. (2008). ''Guerilla Open Access Manifesto''. https://ia800101.us.archive.org/1/items/GuerillaOpenAccessManifesto/Goamjuly2008.pdf</ref>. Gabriella Coleman (“Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy”) has shown how hacker collectives operate through non-hierarchical organisation and shared technical norms, value autonomy, transparency and resistance<ref>Backe, E. L. (2015). ''Review of Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous by Gabriella Coleman.'' The Geek Anthropologist. https://thegeekanthropologist.com/2015/05/02/review-of-hacker-hoaxer-whistleblower-spy-the-many-faces-of-anonymous/</ref>.

However, these movements also reveal a key limitation: they are powerful but not scalable. Anonymous can mobilise globally within hours, yet it cannot maintain sustained governance. WikiLeaks exposed systemic injustices but developed internal power conflicts. Open-access guerrilla tactics highlight inequality but cannot replace academic publishing systems. Cyber-anarchism is therefore impactful but short-lived: it only disrupts power rather than replacing it.

=== Why the Information Society Makes Anarchy Look Possible ===
Digital networks create an illusion of equality and flattened hierarchy. In reality, democratic environment with equal distribution of visibility and voice are legitimate only online, which reinforces the belief that the Internet naturally leads to non-hierarchical societies. But power in fact is still centralised around servers, platforms and algorithms, and the architecture of the information society privileges those who control over them. As Shoshana Zuboff’s “The Age of Surveillance Capitalism” demonstrates, society is built in a way that praises the widespread collection and commercialisation of personal data by corporations, which means data-driven platforms indeed concentrate various forms of control in corporate hands. Zuboff notes that '''surveillance capitalism''' extends beyond the realm of private firms and transforms into accumulating not only assets, but rights, which draw parallels with government surveillance<ref>Whitehead, M. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism - A Review Essay. ''Antipode'', 1. https://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/30702597/Book_review_Whitehead_on_Zuboff.pdf</ref>.

The paradox is clear: the more technologically decentralised the network is, the more socially centralised the power becomes. For example, global corporations, such as Meta and Amazon, control communication channels for billions of people. Cloud infrastructure, app ecosystems and advertising networks do not abolish authority, but reassemble it in new forms. Therefore, the information society makes anarchism feel possible because it visibly democratises social interaction, but it simultaneously strengthens hidden systems of governance and surveillance.

== Dystopical Aspects ==
As we have seen through historical examples and modern frameworks, anarchist society may seem to have quite a promising potential. Still, certain structural, psychological and moral barriers keep such a society [[Utopia (preliminary)|utopic]] (impossible), with some aspects even viewed as [[Dystopia (preliminary)|dystopic]] (extremely unfavourable).

=== Human Psychological Barriers ===

==== Preference for Authority ====
The core idea of anarchism is freedom without authority, although it is believed that people simply see stability and predictability in abiding to certain government or hierarchy. In "Escape from Freedom", Erich Fromm argues that individuals are likely to perceive freedom from authority and freedom to be your own law not as liberation, but as a source of anxiety. This happens due to the fact that after the abolition of traditional authorities, such as government or religion, people are confronted with responsibility for their own choices and actions, which is usually avoided. In this sense, authority takes over this burden of decision-making, and many people would rather choose to escape this freedom by submitting to new forms of authority. Fromm even suggests that after society is liberated from traditional authority, under stress and uncertainty, people may lean towards even more authoritarian power sources<ref>Fromm, E. (1941). ''Escape from Freedom.'' Farrar & Rinehart. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://edarcipelago.com/classici/erichfromm/escape%20from%20freedom%20-%20erich%20fromm.pdf</ref>.

Continuing, Marcuse argues that individuals in modern capitalist society are internally shaped by ideology through mass media, consumer culture, competition and bureaucracy to desire exactly what government brings them: consumption, comfort and hierarchy. For this society, anarchy is not only unrealistic, but irrational and inconvenient. Furthermore, such “propaganda” deprives humans of revolutionary thinking alongside with ability to see positive in mutual aid and collective governance<ref name=":0" />.

==== The Fear of Freedom and Responsibility ====
Freedom is viewed as a burden and not clearly liberating as well in the novel “'''Demons'''” by '''Fyodor Dostoyevsky''', where the author illustrates psychological unpreparedness for radical freedom. The fear of inner freedom and responsibility is expressed in the characters’ desire for radical ideas to relieve themselves of the burden of personal choice and moral responsibility, which leads to chaos, destruction and obsession. Ideological “anxiety” is preferred to true freedom and responsibility for their lives and actions, while the desire for “liberation” through the destruction of the old world is viewed as an escape from responsibility for the creation of a new, more complex world. Having rejected God and the state, the characters are left with no own moral ideals and have to surrender to the “demons” of ideas that ultimately destroy both themselves and society<ref>Burkova, E. (2024, June 22). ''О чём на самом деле роман Ф. М. Достоевского "Бесы"?'' b17. https://www.b17.ru/article/539307/</ref>.

According to Dostoevsky, the lack of compassion and responsibility can only lead not to utopia but to spiritual and social chaos. We need individual freedom, which is realised in a community, to be fully human. <ref>Trepanier, L. (2022, January 26). ''Freedom Without Limits.'' Law & Liberty. https://lawliberty.org/forum/freedom-without-limits/#:~:text=Now%2C%20a%20large%20herd%20of,%2C%20as%20individuals%2C%20truly%20free</ref>Therefore, anarchism demands not only structural transformation of society but also a profound transformation of human perception of self.

=== Socio-Economic Confrontations ===
Certain philosophers also consider socio-economic changes in the society, that are required to achieve anarchy, as dystopic for modern society due to established economic inequality and geopolitical competition. First, in opposition to anarchist assumption that community is able to naturally regulate itself, Karl Polanyi (“The Great Transformation”) states that self-regulating market economy is dystopian and unnatural, because it will destroy society in an effort to commodify labour, land and money. He sees forced liberation as a source of poverty and inequality, which would, said once again, lead to an extremist countermovement, like fascism<ref>Polanyi, K. (1944). The Great Transformation. Farrar & Rinehart. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://economicsociology.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/the-great-transformation-pdf-free.pdf</ref>.

Second, Garrett Hardin contradicted Peter Kropotkin’s idea of mutual aid as a natural tendency in his work “The Tragedy of the Commons”. He believes that individuals in a society powered by mutual collaboration and shared resources will tend to maximise their personal gain from these shared and unregulated resources, which will lead to overuse and further to collapse of the society<ref>Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. ''Science'', 162(3859), 1243-1248. Retrieved December 13, 2025, from https://math.uchicago.edu/~shmuel/Modeling/Hardin,%20Tragedy%20of%20the%20Commons.pdf</ref>. Thus, collective sustainability is only possible under coordination.

In conclusion, anarchism requires complex changes in mindset and the operating way of modern societies. Taking together the aspects mentioned above, it would be essential to de-commodify the recourses in general in order to allow voluntary cooperation, as well as assure deep cultural and ethical transformation of human nature towards altruism.

== Note on AI Usage ==
Artificial Intelligence (ChatGPT; OpenAI; GPT-4o) to assist me in structuring my article, as well as to propose relevant and openly accessible sources in addition to my opinions and the short original list of books I had. Additionally, AI (Google Gemini) was used to clarify certain complex terms and complex related to the topic. Apart from those, the work, its core ideas and chapters conclusions are my own.

== References ==

User:Axax30al

2025-11-06T16:23:49Z

Axax30al:

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Ekaterina was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Following her high school graduation, she soon moved to Jyväskyla, Finland to begin her studies at JAMK University of Applied Sciences under the degree of Business Administration.

For her second year of studies, Ekaterina choose the specialisation of Technology Business & Future Foresight with the focus on Innovation, start-up operation and Corporate Strategy. She also completed her thesis on the topic of Emerging Technologies in Music Marketing within the same year. Starting October 2025, Ekaterina studies at Hochschule München in Germany as an exchange student. Moreover, by this time she has completed two internships in Marketing & Sales.
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User:Axax30al

2025-10-20T12:50:43Z

Axax30al:

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|Family name=Klimkova
|Image filename=Ekaterina picture.jpeg
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|Country=Finland
|Institution=JAMK University of Applied Sciences
|Professional category=Elementary occupations / Unskilled workers
|Academic degree=High School Diploma (secondary)
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Ekaterina was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Following her high school graduation, she soon moved to Jyväskyla, Finland to begin her studies at JAMK University of Applied Sciences under the degree of Business Administration. For her second year of studies, Ekaterina choose the specialisation of Technology Business & Future Foresight with the focus on Innovation, start-up operation and Corporate Strategy. She also completed her thesis on the topic of Emerging Technologies in Music Marketing within the same year. Starting October 2025, Ekaterina studies at Hochschule München in Germany as an exchange student. Moreover, by this time she has completed two internships in Marketing & Sales.
[[Category:Person]]

File:Ekaterina picture.jpeg

2025-10-20T12:40:56Z

Axax30al: Ekaterina Klimkova

Ekaterina Klimkova

User:Axax30al

2025-10-20T12:37:15Z

Axax30al: create user page

{{Person}}[[Category:Person]]