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Draft:Emergence

2024-01-13T17:03:43Z

Anastasia Shulman: Merged repeating citations.

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The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref name=":0">O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref name=":1">Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref name=":0" />

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref name=":0" />

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref name=":1" />

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref name=":1" />

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref name=":1" />

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>Usher, M. D. (2020). Plato’s Pigs and Other Ruminations: Ancient Guides to Living with Nature (pp. 67-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref name=":2">Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/ </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref name=":2" />

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 29 - 32). ARKANA.

</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 202 - 204). ARKANA.</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 211, p. 213, p. 219). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 56 - 61). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 64). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 190 - 192). ARKANA.</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9, "what is life" segment, ch. 12, "taming the demon" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

He writes - “What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 1, "what's missing" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 0, "the missing cipher" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 17, "being here" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:GlossaLAB.edu]]

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-30T02:03:50Z

Anastasia Shulman: small edits

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>Usher, M. D. (2020). Plato’s Pigs and Other Ruminations: Ancient Guides to Living with Nature (pp. 67-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/ </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/ </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 29 - 32). ARKANA.

</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 202 - 204). ARKANA.</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 211, p. 213, p. 219). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 56 - 61). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 64). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 190 - 192). ARKANA.</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9, "what is life" segment, ch. 12, "taming the demon" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

He writes - “What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 1, "what's missing" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 0, "the missing cipher" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 17, "being here" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T18:55:50Z

Anastasia Shulman: Fixed links in citations

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>Usher, M. D. (2020). Plato’s Pigs and Other Ruminations: Ancient Guides to Living with Nature (pp. 67-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/ </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/ </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 29 - 32). ARKANA.

</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 202 - 204). ARKANA.</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 211, p. 213, p. 219). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 56 - 61). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 64). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 190 - 192). ARKANA.</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9, "what is life" segment, ch. 12, "taming the demon" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

He writes - “What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 1, "what's missing" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 0, "the missing cipher" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 17, "being here" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
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Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T18:48:40Z

Anastasia Shulman: Formatted citations 16, 34-39, 46-50

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. <nowiki>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</nowiki></ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</nowiki></ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. <nowiki>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</nowiki></ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. <nowiki>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</nowiki></ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. <nowiki>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</nowiki></ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</nowiki></ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. <nowiki>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</nowiki></ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>Usher, M. D. (2020). Plato’s Pigs and Other Ruminations: Ancient Guides to Living with Nature (pp. 67-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. <nowiki>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</nowiki></ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</nowiki></ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. <nowiki>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</nowiki></ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</nowiki></ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</nowiki></ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</nowiki></ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/</nowiki></ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</nowiki></ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</nowiki></ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</nowiki></ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</nowiki></ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. <nowiki>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</nowiki></ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. <nowiki>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</nowiki></ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 29 - 32). ARKANA.

</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 202 - 204). ARKANA.</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 211, p. 213, p. 219). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 56 - 61). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (p. 64). ARKANA.</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>Koestler, A. (1967). The GHOST in the MACHINE (pp. 190 - 192). ARKANA.</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</nowiki></ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</nowiki></ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</nowiki></ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</nowiki></ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</nowiki></ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9, "what is life" segment, ch. 12, "taming the demon" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 9). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

He writes - “What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 1, "what's missing" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 0, "the missing cipher" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>Deacon, T. W. (2011). Incomplete Nature - How Mind Emerged from Matter (ch. 17, "being here" segment). W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T18:17:12Z

Anastasia Shulman:

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. <nowiki>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</nowiki></ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</nowiki></ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. <nowiki>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</nowiki></ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. <nowiki>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</nowiki></ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. <nowiki>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</nowiki></ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</nowiki></ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. <nowiki>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</nowiki></ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. <nowiki>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</nowiki></ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</nowiki></ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. <nowiki>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</nowiki></ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</nowiki></ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</nowiki></ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</nowiki></ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/</nowiki></ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</nowiki></ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</nowiki></ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</nowiki></ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</nowiki></ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. <nowiki>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</nowiki></ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. <nowiki>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</nowiki></ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</nowiki></ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</nowiki></ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</nowiki></ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</nowiki></ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</nowiki></ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

He writes - “What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T18:15:54Z

Anastasia Shulman:

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. <nowiki>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</nowiki></ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</nowiki></ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. <nowiki>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</nowiki></ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. <nowiki>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</nowiki></ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. <nowiki>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</nowiki></ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</nowiki></ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. <nowiki>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</nowiki></ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. <nowiki>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</nowiki></ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</nowiki></ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. <nowiki>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</nowiki></ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</nowiki></ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</nowiki></ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</nowiki></ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/</nowiki></ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</nowiki></ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</nowiki></ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</nowiki></ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</nowiki></ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. <nowiki>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</nowiki></ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. <nowiki>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</nowiki></ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</nowiki></ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</nowiki></ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</nowiki></ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</nowiki></ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</nowiki></ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T18:15:06Z

Anastasia Shulman: Formatted citations 31-33, 40-45

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. <nowiki>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</nowiki></ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</nowiki></ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. <nowiki>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</nowiki></ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. <nowiki>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</nowiki></ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. <nowiki>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</nowiki></ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</nowiki></ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. <nowiki>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</nowiki></ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. <nowiki>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</nowiki></ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</nowiki></ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. <nowiki>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</nowiki></ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</nowiki></ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</nowiki></ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</nowiki></ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/ Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/]</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</nowiki></ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</nowiki></ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</nowiki></ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>Bauer, J. M., Herder, P. M. (2009). Designing Socio-Technical Systems. ScienceDirect. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444516671500264</nowiki></ref><ref>Park, J. (2018, March 25). An Introduction to complexity Theory. Medium. <nowiki>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</nowiki></ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>Stark, J. F. (2016, June 22). Anti-reductionism at the confluence of philosophy and science: Arthur Koestler and the biological periphery. The Royal Society Publishing. <nowiki>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</nowiki></ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>Pieter, A. (2023, November 1). Information. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/information/</nowiki></ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>Stone, J. V. (n.d.). Information Theory: A Tutorial Introduction. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>Travis LaDell, B. (2009, January 12). Information and meaning revisiting Shannon's theory of communication and extending it to address todays technical problems.. United States. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2172/993634</nowiki></ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>Coyle, D., Hampton, L. (2023). 21st century progress in computing. Telecommunications Policy. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X</nowiki></ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>Stern, A. (2000). FROM BLACK HOLES TO GRAY BRAINS - THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Quantum Theoretic Machines. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</nowiki></ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter. Berkeley Anthropology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</nowiki></ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T17:53:01Z

Anastasia Shulman: Formatted citations 17-30

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. <nowiki>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</nowiki></ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</nowiki></ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. <nowiki>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</nowiki></ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. <nowiki>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</nowiki></ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. <nowiki>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</nowiki></ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</nowiki></ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. <nowiki>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</nowiki></ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>Cohen, S. M., Reeve C. D. C. (2020, October 8). Aristotle’s Metaphysics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref><ref>Johnson, M. R. (2020, January 2). Aristotle’s Revenge: The metaphysical foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. <nowiki>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</nowiki></ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 7. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg025.perseus-eng1:7</nowiki></ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>Snell, M. (2019, July 3). Alchemy in the Middle Ages. ThoughtCo. <nowiki>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</nowiki></ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>Kerr, G. (n.d.). Aquinas: Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</nowiki></ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>Pasnau, R. (2022, December 7). Thomas Aquinas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aquinas/</nowiki></ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>The Philosophy of Religion : Thomas Aquinas and Fredrich Nietzsche. (n.d.). Bartleby. Retrieved December 28, 2023 from <nowiki>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</nowiki></ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>Bristow, W. Enlightenment (2017, August 29). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/enlightenment/</nowiki></ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>Hoefer, C. (2023, September 21). Causal Determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/determinism-causal/</nowiki> </ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/ Robinson, H. (2020, September 11). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/]</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>Slowik, E. (2021, October 15). Descartes’ Physics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-physics/</nowiki></ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>Squires, G. L. (2023, December 25). quantum mechanics. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</nowiki></ref> and the chaos theory<ref>Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, December 5). chaos theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</nowiki></ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/complexity-theory</ref><ref>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X?dgcid=rss_sd_all</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T17:30:15Z

Anastasia Shulman: Formatted citations 1-15

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>Etymology of emerge by etymonline. (2020, December 8). Online Etymology Dictionary. <nowiki>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</nowiki></ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>Vintiadis, E. (n.d.). Emergence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</nowiki></ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>Weiler, N. (2023, November 8). Where ant colonies keep their brains. Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. <nowiki>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</nowiki></ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>Lebowitz, J. L. (2007). Emergent Phenomena - Entropy and phase transitions in macroscopic systems. Physik Journal 6 Nr. 8/9. <nowiki>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</nowiki></ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>Wanjek, C. (2022, May 2). Systems Biology as defined by NIH - An Intellectual Resource for Integrative Biology. The NIH Catalyst. <nowiki>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</nowiki></ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>Hanson, J. E. (n.d.). Emergent Phenomena in Cellular Automata. Retrieved December 28, 2023, from <nowiki>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>O’Connor, T. (2020, August 10). Emergent Properties. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/properties-emergent/</nowiki></ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in Sociology: Contemporary Philosophy of Mind and Some Implications for Sociological Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 551–585. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1086/338780</nowiki></ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>Whitehead, R (2023, November 2). Emergent Properties in AI: a sign of the future? IOA - Institute of Analytics. <nowiki>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</nowiki></ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, R. (2018, Fall). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113. <nowiki>https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</nowiki></ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</ref><ref>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D7</ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/</ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/</ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/</ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/</ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-physics/</ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</ref> and the chaos theory<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/complexity-theory</ref><ref>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X?dgcid=rss_sd_all</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T16:47:49Z

Anastasia Shulman: /* Age of Enlightenment, mechanistic paradigm, and reductionism */ Added relevant connections to other articles within glossaLAB

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/</ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/338780</ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</ref><ref>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D7</ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/</ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, determinism and mechanistic paradigm ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/</ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/</ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/</ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the [[Mind-Body Dualism|mind-body dualism]])<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-physics/</ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</ref> and the chaos theory<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/complexity-theory</ref><ref>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. [[Information (preliminary)|Information]] is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, [[Shannon, Claude Elwood|Claude Shannon]], an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X?dgcid=rss_sd_all</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T16:40:08Z

Anastasia Shulman: All citations added, currently unformated

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/</ref> These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref> These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave.<ref>https://cmsr.rutgers.edu/images/people/lebowitz_joel/publications/ephenom.pdf</ref> In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds.<ref>https://irp.nih.gov/catalyst/19/6/systems-biology-as-defined-by-nih</ref> Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automata, like in the case of Conway's game of life.<ref>https://www.uu.nl/sites/default/files/hanson.pdf</ref>

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/</ref>

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/338780</ref> Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks.<ref>https://ioaglobal.org/blog/emergent-properties-in-ai-a-sign-of-the-future-/</ref> Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.<ref>Abbott, Russ (2018). What Makes Complex Systems Complex? Journal on Policy and Complex Systems 4 (2):77-113.

https://philpapers.org/archive/ABBWMC.pdf</ref>

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.<ref>PLATO’S PIGS AND OTHER RUMINATIONS page 67-68</ref>

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/</ref><ref>https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/aristotles-revenge-the-metaphysical-foundations-of-physical-and-biological-science/</ref>

Aristotle writes - “Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.” <ref>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D7</ref>

The whole is therefore not merely its’ parts, but something else besides.

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes.<ref>https://www.thoughtco.com/alchemy-in-the-middle-ages-1788253</ref> One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.<ref>https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-metaphysics/</ref>

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance - “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form.”<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/</ref>

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.<ref>https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Philosophy-Of-Religion-Thomas-Aquinas-And-PKC5Q2MH4P</ref>

=== Age of Enlightenment, mechanistic paradigm, and reductionism ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/</ref> According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/</ref>

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/</ref>

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the mind-body dualism)<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/</ref> are reduced to mechanical component interactions.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-physics/</ref> In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics</ref> and the chaos theory<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/chaos-theory</ref>.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/complexity-theory</ref><ref>https://medium.com/@junp01/an-introduction-to-complexity-theory-3c20695725f8</ref>

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.<ref>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2016.0021</ref>

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings.<ref>Book chapter 2 THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE</ref> Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems.<ref>book chapter 14 the ghost in the machine</ref> Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.<ref>p 211, p 213, p 219</ref>

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.<ref>chapter 3 the holon</ref>

Koestler writes - “the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”<ref>page 64</ref>

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.<ref>chapter 13 THE GLORY OF MAN</ref>

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. Information is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, Claude Shannon, an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information/</ref>

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.<ref>https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.05968.pdf</ref>

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness.<ref>https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/993634</ref> Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030859612300160X?dgcid=rss_sd_all</ref>, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/theory-of-everything</ref>, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.<ref>https://anthropology.berkeley.edu/incomplete-nature-how-mind-emerged-matter</ref>

Deacon reintroduces Schrödinger’s concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property.<ref>book pages 270 - chapter 9 teleodynamics - what is life and 371- chapter 12, information - taming the demon</ref> Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.<ref>chapter 9 teleodynamics</ref>

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”<ref>chapter 1 (W) holes- what's missing page 31</ref>

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties.<ref>chapter 0 absence - the missing cipher</ref> Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.<ref>chapter 17 consciousness - being here</ref>

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==
<references />

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T15:10:00Z

Anastasia Shulman: /* Abstract */ footnotes

The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergere”, meaning to arise or to come forth.<ref>https://www.etymonline.com/word/emerge#etymonline_v_5795</ref> A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation.<ref>https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/#SH1a</ref> Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.<ref>https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/where-ant-colonies-keep-their-brains</ref>

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence. These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence. These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave. In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds. Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automation.

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors. Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks. Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.

“Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.”

The whole is therefore “not merely [its’ parts], but something else besides.”

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes. One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance. “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form”

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.

=== Age of Enlightenment, mechanistic paradigm, and reductionism ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics. According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the mind-body dualism) are reduced to mechanical component interactions. In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics and the chaos theory.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings. Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems. Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.

“the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. Information is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, Claude Shannon, an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.

FORMULA HERE The mathematical formula expresses the expected value of the information content, which is represented in bits and is connected with the outcomes of a random variable X.

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness. Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.

Deacon introduces the concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property. Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties. Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

== References ==

Draft:Emergence

2023-12-29T14:56:24Z

Anastasia Shulman: Created draft for clarification of emergence.

== Abstract ==
The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of “emergence”. The term is first broadly defined and an illustration is given for better understanding. Then the concept is broken down into its five types: weak and strong emergence, static, dynamic, and adaptive emergence. This is followed by the history of emergence and its presence in different philosophical worldviews. The history begins with the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Heraclitus and Aristotle, moving to Thomas Aquinas in the medieval period, and then the later paradigm shifts during the age of enlightenment. Here a short analysis of the clash between emergence, the deterministic worldview and reductionism is done, taking into account the views of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Descartes. In the 20th century, Arthur Koestler's critique of the reductionism and the introduction of the "holon" concept is examined. Following this, an attempt is made to link the concept of emergence and Shannon’s information theory, by examining how emergent properties contribute to greater entropy and therefore complexity. For the 21st century, modern perspectives are addressed, with a focus on Terrence Deacon's "negentropy" and "teleodynamics" as critical aspects for understanding emergence. The article is concluded by with a statement that emergence remains relevant in the information age and the era of Artificial Intelligence, able to serve as a lens through which we might better understand the dynamic reality of our world.

== Definition ==
For years, the concept of emergence has been a topic of conversation across disciplines and still remains one today. The term “emergence” is derived from the Latin verb “emergo”, meaning to arise or to come forth. A broad definition of emergent behavior is the development of novel features in a system, that are different from the properties of the system’s individual components. In a system which exhibits emergent properties, novel properties can arise which cannot be predicted by examining the system’s parts in isolation. Such a system as a whole is therefore more than just the sum of its parts.

The concept can be somewhat unintuitive to understand, so an illustration may be helpful.

Ant colonies are small wonders of the animal world. A single, individual ant has no hope of survival, much less of thriving and is only capable of the most primitive of actions. Yet ant colonies can baffle with their impressive complexity and behaviors akin to a superorganism or even an intelligence. Able to house and organize hundreds of thousands of individuals, ant colonies are capable of efficient food foraging, impressive defense, mobilizing high numbers of individuals, assigning, and switching jobs according to needs, building remarkable architectural structures and much more.

Needless to say, an ant colony cannot be described as just the sum of the single ants’ capabilities. The basic properties of the individual ants, like eating, transporting, reproducing, etc., would otherwise add up to the same, just on a larger scale. Instead, the collective behavior produces emergent properties like elaborate nest construction, coordinated defense, or efficient foraging, and the overall collective organizational phenomena.

For a more in depth understanding of emergence, its’ different types need to be considered. The above ant colony example could be classified as a case of “weak emergence”.

== Types of emergence ==
Emergence presents itself in various forms. There are two prominent types that usually get discussed in philosophy and science – weak emergence and strong emergence. These two provide insights into the relationship between the whole system and its parts. There are additionally three more specific categories, as seen in Russ Abbott’s paper “What makes complex systems complex” – static emergence, dynamic emergence, and adaptive emergence. These three offer a more nuanced view of the characteristics of emergent systems and are used more rarely.

=== Weak emergence ===
In weak emergence, the emergent properties which arise from the interactions of individual components, are to a large degree reducible to the behaviors and properties of those components. Weak emergence has a level of predictability and comprehensibility, even when the emergent properties are not immediately obvious from analyzing the system’s parts. As a consequence, understanding the properties of the parts and their interactions helps understand and explain the emergent properties.

Weak emergence can be observed in physics, for example in flow dynamics, where new properties emerge from the collective behavior of molecules, like in the case of a wave. In Biology, it can be seen in the self-organization of cellular structures, or in the flocking behavior of birds. Weak emergence can also be observed in computer science, where complex patterns or behaviors emerge from initially simple rules in cellular automation.

=== Strong emergence ===
In strong emergence the emergent properties are irreducible. That means they cannot be explained through the properties or interactions of individual parts. The whole system takes on new, unpredictable characteristics.

Strong emergence can be found in sociology, for example in the emergence of social norms and behaviors. Nowadays, it is especially a consideration in AI, where unexpected behaviors and novel patterns can emerge during the development of neural networks. Strong emergence is also a major topic in philosophy, as will elaborated later in this article.

=== Static emergence ===
Static emergence includes the transformation of one or multiple things into “products”, as a result of either human activity or occurrence in nature. Photosynthesis is a natural example of static emergence – energy captured from sunshine, which in turn was produced through the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Activities in which humans construct items from parts is also considered static emergence. An important aspect to consider is that products of static emergence are usually closed systems at equilibrium, meaning that they cannot gain or lose material/energy.

=== Dynamic emergence ===
Dynamic emergence, contrary to static emergence, involves a continuous process, which requires a steady supply of energy and/or materials. The process either creates or most often maintains the product, like in the case of most social organizations, countries, clubs, or communities, created and maintained by their members, which serve as material. Dynamically emergent systems need to be open in order to ensure a continuous supply, but at the same time they are mostly self-sustainable and self-managed.

=== Adaptive emergence ===
Adaptive emergence is arguably the most important type of the three. It involves the development of new or modified properties, which often, but not always improve the overall state of the system which adopts them. Biological evolution is the ultimate example of adaptive emergence – organisms change form and behavior, leading to better adaptability and survivability.

When looking at the different types of emergence, it is important to remember that classification is not always simple and clear cut. Many cases of emergent properties can instead be found somewhere between the different types and are often up to the interpretation of the classifier.

== Emergence in history and philosophy ==

=== Antiquity ===
The concept of emergence can be traced all the way back to ancient philosophy and reflections on the nature of our world and reality. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Heraclitus were trying to understand the changing nature of our world and laid the groundwork for the idea that complex phenomena could be the result of the dynamic interactions between simpler elements.

Heraclitus was a philosopher whose work is mostly known from third party sources, a handful of citations and their interpretations. Yet despite the fragmented nature of his existing writing, the hallmark of his philosophy is clear - the state of flux. Heraclitus stated that change is the only constant in the world and put a focus on the dynamic and shifting nature of the universe. One of his quotes - “The road up/down is one and the same”, has been interpreted in different ways, some of them making mentions of emergence. It could be said that the direction of the road depends not on its inherent properties, but instead on its travelers and observers. The road’s trajectory can therefore be interpreted as an emergent property of its underlying structure and is only activated by the presence and perspective of the traveler or observer.

The philosopher most often mentioned when discussing the history of emergence is Aristotle. His principal work “Metaphysics” is a compilation of many texts dealing with a variety of topics and it is in book 7 (Zeta), that Aristotle’s view on the irreducibility of the “substance” of things (the primary property of the being, or the “what” the being which describes it) becomes clear.

“Now since that which is composed of something in such a way that the whole is a unity; not as an aggregate is a unity, but as a syllable is - the syllable is not the letters, nor is BA the same as B and A; nor is flesh fire and earth; because after dissolution the compounds, e.g. flesh or the syllable, no longer exist; but the letters exist, and so do fire and earth. Therefore the syllable is some particular thing; not merely the letters, vowel and consonant, but something else besides. And flesh is not merely fire and earth, or hot and cold, but something else besides.”

The whole is therefore “not merely [its’ parts], but something else besides.”

=== Medieval period ===
In the Middle Ages, academics, priests, and alchemists also strived to understand the world, our being, and transformational processes. One of the most important figures of the time – Thomas Aquinas, was a Catholic theologian and philosopher who was engaged in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas left a significant amount of commentary on Aristotle’s writings, including those related to substances and complexity.

For example, Aquinas acknowledges the existence of complex material substances can exist and investigates how their substantial form (a defining characteristic that gives a thing its identity) unifies them. Substantial forms are responsible for the existence of not only the entire substance, but also each of its components. Accidental forms, on the other hand, do not give existence to the individual parts and instead only grant a specific characteristic to the substance. “a form of the whole that does not give existence to the individual parts of the body, … such as the form of a house, is an accidental form”

When examining Aquinas’ views, one cannot help but take notice of the sharp contrast between material substances and God. According to him, God is absolutely simple and unified, not composed of any parts and therefore indivisible. Aquinas also describes God as “actus purus”, a completely actualized (realized) entity with no untapped or unrealized potential, who is immutable and unchanging.

=== Age of Enlightenment, mechanistic paradigm, and reductionism ===
The philosophical view underwent a dramatic shift during the Age of Enlightenment. This time period can be defined by a faith in reason, science and the mechanistic paradigm - which saw the universe as a massive, deterministic machine powered by Newton’s laws of physics. According to the deterministic worldview, every state or event in the universe can be predicted by the states or events that came before it.

It makes sense that this worldview stood in a sharp opposition to the idea of emergence. Similarly, the concept of emergence contradicted and challenged reductionism, as well as the idea that the “whole” could be understood just by studying its parts.

Many great great scientists and philosophers of the time held beliefs consistent with the dominant paradigm. One of them, a French mathematician and physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace, proposed a thought experiment known as Laplace’s Demon.

In this thought experiment, Laplace imagines a demon, an entity which the complete knowledge of the positions and velocities of every particle in the universe at a given moment, as well as an understanding of all the laws of physics which govern them. As a result, Laplace proposes that such an entity could predict the entire future or fully reconstruct the past. This implies that full knowledge and predictability of the system as a whole would be possible with a complete understanding of the fundamental components of a system and their interactions.

Another supporter of the deterministic worldview was René Descartes. In his concept of a mechanical universe, Descartes envisions the universe as a massive, intricate machine, in which all phenomena including living organisms and human bodies (with the exception of human mind and soul, which Descartes views as a separate non-material substance – an element of the mind-body dualism) are reduced to mechanical component interactions. In that concept, information is nothing more than a reflection of the state of the universe, similarly devoid of complexity and emergent properties.

=== 20th century ===
The 20th century brought a number of new scientific discoveries, which challenged the mechanistic, deterministic worldview. Scientists were faced with new theories that defied simple reductionist explanations, among them quantum mechanics and the chaos theory.

Also at this time, the complexity theory emerged. In the complexity theory, systems can exist and operate in various states, for example in an order state, an edge-of-chaos state, or a chaotic state. Behavior in the order state can be stable or can oscillate between positions and are therefore characterized by predictability. Meanwhile the state of edge-of-chaos and chaotic behaviors cannot be predicted with accuracy. Complex systems can undergo phase transitions. Orderly systems may become chaotic and chaotic systems can become orderly. Complex systems often demonstrate non-linear dynamic behavior. They show a high degree of diversity and agents in the system are connected through multiple flows over networks of nodes and connectors. This in itself can lead to emergent behavior.

Arthur Koestler, a Hungarian-British author and philosopher of the 20th century, criticized the reductionist view. He advances the idea of emergent features in complex systems, particularly in the realm of biology and psychology, which cannot be understood only through the analysis of individual components.

In his book “The Ghost in the Machine”, he explores the topics of emergent properties in biology and psychology. The “machine” in this context represents a mechanical, reductionist approach to understanding living beings. Meanwhile, the “ghost” represents the elusive qualities of consciousness and purpose that emerge in complex systems. Koestler argues that something more than the sum of biological parts exists, a non-material, emergent dimension of sorts, that is critically important in understanding the complexity of life.

“the organism is not a mosaic aggregate of elementary physico-chemical processes, but a hierarchy in which each member, from the sub-cellular level upward, is a closely integrated structure, equipped with self-regulatory devices, and enjoys an advanced form of self-government.”

Koestler introduces the concept of the “holon,” a system or concept of duality – the ability to express oneself, but also to merge with others into something greater. This idea comes from the observation of elements, which can be individual, independent wholes, but can also together contribute to larger wholes and eventually organisms. Examples for this are atoms, cells, or even humans.

Koestler believes that these dual tendencies can also lead to developmental errors, such as the creation of social units motivated by the oppression of some individuals and the inflated ego of others. As holons (smaller, simple components) interact and organize themselves, higher-order properties such as purpose or consciousness (emergent properties) emerge in ways that can’t be predicted or fully understood by analyzing the holons in isolation.

=== Information and emergence ===
In the 20th century, the concept of emergence overlaps with the realm of information theory. Information is crucial to our understanding of the world and plays a similarly important role in emergent systems.

In 1948, Claude Shannon, an American mathematician and electrical engineer, laid the foundation for information theory in his paper “A mathematical theory of communication.” In it, he sought to establish a formal framework for the understanding of communication systems and to introduce a quantitative measure of information, as opposed to the previously qualitative approaches.

According to Shannon, information is essentially a decrease in uncertainty. In order to fully understand this concept, the core of Shannon’s information theory first needs to be clarified - Entropy. Shannon’s entropy is a measure of uncertainty or surprise in information. A message’s information content can be measured, with higher entropy indicating greater unpredictability and higher information content, and lower entropy indicating lower unpredictability and lower information content.

FORMULA HERE The mathematical formula expresses the expected value of the information content, which is represented in bits and is connected with the outcomes of a random variable X.

When trying to establish a connection between the information theory, entropy and emergent properties, the idea that higher entropy indicates greater unpredictability or surprise needs to be kept in mind. When emergent properties arise in a system as new, unexpected qualities that were not originally present in the individual components, this unpredictability leads to an increase in entropy. Higher entropy systems are seen as more complex and less predictable. This increased complexity in turn translates to higher information content.

The dynamic and evolving nature of reality can be observed in this connection. Systems with emergent properties are not static and instead demonstrate a combination of unpredictability and novel patterns. Aside from challenging the previously mentioned philosophical notions of a static, deterministic universe as mentioned before, it also suggests a continuous expansion of our knowledge base. Emergent properties in the context of information can influence how we approach and comprehend complex systems.

Some limitations and criticisms of Shannon’s theory of information should be examined for the sake of a more well-rounded examination of the topic.

The theory of information has a quantitative focus on statistical patterns and unpredictability, while emergent properties frequently involve qualities that go beyond purely statistical measures. Some critics also argue that the theory neglects meaning and context, whereas emergent properties arise in conditions influenced by environment and context. Furthermore, the theory does not address subjective and conscious aspects of information, which can be important especially when examining emergent properties related to cognition, perception, and consciousness. Shannon’s theory of information was not created for the study of emergence, but it is nonetheless interesting to establish a link between these topics.

=== 20th to 21st century ===
As we enter the 21st century, driven by advancements of computational power, scientists are able to simulate and study all kinds of behaviors in advanced artificial systems. Yet while some are striving to formulate a comprehensive “Theory of Everything”, others find themselves troubled by gaps in our scientific understanding, particularly when it comes to our feelings, consciousness and purpose.

Among them is Terrence Deacon, an American anthropologist and neuroscientist. His book “Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter”, introduces a new way of thinking about emergent phenomena. He combines insights from anthropology, neuroscience and philosophy to provide a more interdisciplinary perspective.

Deacon introduces the concept of “negentropy”, which suggests that the absence of specific physical properties can also be a form of information while emphasizing the significance of “absence” as a qualitative property. Another key concept in his work is the idea of “teleodynamics” - the dynamic relationships and constraints that drive the emergence of complexity, purpose and meaning. Teleodynamics acknowledge the purposeful nature of certain processes and their role in the generation of information.

“What does it mean to be reading these words? To provide an adequate answer, it is unnecessary to include information about the histories of the billions of atoms constituting the paper and ink or electronic book in front of you. A Laplacian demon might know the origins of these atoms [...] but this complete physical knowledge wouldn’t provide any clue to their meaning. […] You are reading these words because of something that they and you are not: the ideas they convey. [...] it is clear that they are not the stuff that you and this book are made of.”

Deacon believes that the omission in the “Theory of Everything” mentioned above, comes from the limitations of a purely physical perspective, which rely on properties such as mass, momentum, charge, and location. His work challenges the oversight, acknowledging that although mental contents are products of physical processes with a unique form of causal power, they do not possess certain material-energetic properties. Deacon then traces the emergence of this causal capacity and demonstrates how absences and constraints can help organize the processes, which results in emergent properties. He concludes that these absences make up who we are as humans and that even absent properties can have powerful effects.

Deacon provides a framework that takes qualitative and contextual properties into consideration and acknowledges the importance of constraints, teleodynamics, as well as the role of absence. This places it among some of the most comprehensive approaches to understanding emergent properties.

== Conclusion ==
The topic of emergence has been studied across centuries and various academic fields. From ancient philosophical thought to modern interdisciplinary perspectives, emergence has been seen as not only a scientific and philosophical concept, but also as a lens through which we might observe the complex and dynamic reality of our world. In the information age, the concept will no doubt continue to be relevant, as we’ll continue having to deal with ever increasing amounts of information and new technologies, particularly in the field of Artificial Intelligence.

User:Anastasia Shulman

2023-11-03T13:32:59Z

Anastasia Shulman: Added categories corresponding to the knowledge domains of my studies

Student at Munich University of Applied Sciences, majoring in Informatics and Design. Dedicated to exploring the synergies between technology and creative expression through academic pursuits at the intersection of design, programming, art and Artificial Intelligence.
[[Category:Knowledge Domain]]
[[Category:0) Generalities. Science and Knowledge. Organisation. Information. Documentation]]
[[Category:02) Computer science]]
[[Category:7) The arts. Recreation]]